Virtue in Taoism and Socratic philosophy: comparing eternal paths

Socrates and Virtue

Comparing and Contrasting Virtue in Taoism and Socrates' Philosophy

The idea of virtue in Taoism may be compared and contrasted to the idea of virtue in the teachings of Socrates. For Socrates, virtue is related to the pursuit of wisdom through philosophy, and is ordered to that which is true and good. Taoism similarly calls upon the practitioner to devote himself to the Way, which is the order that life should take, and through which a life of virtue, or harmony, can be lived. If today virtue is understood as a "good habit," both Taoism and Socratic philosophy may be said to be Ways by which virtue may be achieved. Where the two schools of thought contrast, however, is in their expression of the Way. This paper will compare and contrast Taoism with Socratic philosophy on the subject of virtue and show how the two schools of thought both suggest that virtue pertains to the eternal, even though they differ on the means of attaining it.

Virtue in Socrates' Teaching and in Taoism

The Allegory of the Cave is a means whereby Plato impresses upon his audience the necessity of caring for the common good above that of the individual -- and the role that the philosopher plays in the maintenance of the State. The Allegory itself, as told through the person of Socrates to Glaucon, illustrates the manner in which the uneducated are brought to enlightenment: there is movement in the soul from darkness to light -- or from ignorance to wisdom. Yet, the goal of wisdom is not merely one's own enlightenment: as Plato suggests, the philosopher after moving into the light, must return to the cave to help the others who remain in darkness. Thus, the goal of the State is not to elevate one particular class, but rather all the classes should be elevated. This is the means whereby virtue is achieved according to Socrates.

According to Taoism, however, virtue is achieved in a different way. As Chuang Tzu states, virtue is identical to simplicity: "The man of kingly Virtue moves in simplicity and is ashamed to be a master of facts" (p. 128). In other words, the virtuous man is not a pedant or collector of information, but a man who lives simply and justly in a state of transcendence above the trivial and mundane. Elsewhere, virtue is understood as "harmony," while Tao or the Way is understood as "order" (p. 171). The object of virtue is to "embrace all things," much like the way Socrates' virtuous philosopher endeavors to accept all things (p. 171). According to Chuang Tzu, virtue leads to benevolence and Tao or the Way leads to righteousness (p. 171). In Taoism, Virtue is completed only in Heaven, and this idea may similarly be found in Socrates' teachings, especially when he suggests in the Symposium that the good life or virtuous man cannot be complete until it is united with God, i.e., in Heaven.

However, Burton Watson in his translation of Chuang Tzu, asserts that the word "virtue" "presents certain difficulties" (Tzu, 1964, p. 25). The problem lies in the way Chuang Tzu uses the word, sometimes in the conventional sense most similar to that used by Confucius or Mo, and other times in the "true" sense, which is the right and proper way the word should be used according to Chuang Tzu. This is the idea that true virtue belongs only "to the man of Tao" (Tzu, p. 25). Nonetheless, there is a sense of attaining or possessing that the word "virtue" should denotate -- in other words, he who has virtue in Taoism is he who embraced the Way. This is similar to Socrates' idea that the virtuous man should embrace Philosophy. Virtue is a characteristic, in other words, of a man who has applied himself to a path that leads him to a higher plane. Thus, both Socrates' philosophy and Chuang Tzu's Taoism share a sense of virtue.

How the Two Schools Contrast

Yet, this is where Taoism and Socrates' teachings differ. Taoism embraces reticence and silence -- or reflection and meditation. Socrates, however, was a talker. He loved to talk, and the Dialogues are the perfect proof of this. Socrates believed that through dialogue, one could better understand the meaning of virtue, goodness, eternity, etc. Still, for all his dialogue, he learned in the end that silence was important too -- and this may be seen in the fact that he chose to accept death as a virtuous act rather than escape and a longer life of teaching. To act with virtue, for Socrates, was to both speak and then, contradictorily, to be silent. Socrates, in the end, reflects the idea of Taoism, that to know is to be silent.

Socrates also equates virtue with love. For the pagan Greeks, there was eros (erotic or sexual love), agape (spiritual love), and phileos (a kind of platonic, friendly love). Plato set down in writing the wisdom of his teacher Socrates. Socrates posed many questions to the Athenians of his day, not the least of which concerned the question of how to live the best possible life. Of all Plato's writings, the Symposium addresses this question in the most unique (and humorous) way. One may gauge the seriousness of Plato's Symposium from the title itself, which means literally "drinking party." Of course, like all drinking parties there is bound to be absurdity mixed with philosophy -- but the overall mood is light and the atmosphere celebratory. For these reasons, it is appropriate that the theme of the Symposium is love and virtue, for if there is one subject that captures the ethereal, the whimsical, the effervescent, and the practical all at once it is eros, phileos and agape.

In the Symposium, Plato shows how Socrates defines love as union with the eternal, which is God. This definition is similar to the ideas of Taoism, which is the embracing of the Eternal. However, Socrates calls attention to the meaning of life as the correct placement of love. Plato elaborates on the meaning of life in his other writings as well. In the Apology, for example, Plato records Socrates as showing how humility is a requisite for love (and the uniting of oneself to the eternal will of God). Plato makes a rather brilliant philosophical point -- honest and true -- when he has Socrates proclaim: "O men of Athens…God only is wise; and in this oracle he means to say that the wisdom of men is little or nothing; he is not speaking of Socrates, he is only using my name as an illustration, as if he said, He, O men, is the wisest, who, like Socrates, knows that his wisdom is in truth worth nothing." (Plato, Apology, 23a).

Yet, true to his comic nature, Socrates cannot resist following this profundity with a little jest. He maintains that it is only out of obedience to God that he goes out into the public squares, showing everyone he meets how "unwise" they actually are! And still he defends himself by saying he does the Athenians this courtesy and the gods this honor for free. Thus, it is clear that one need not lose one's sense of humor when discussing such serious topics. If the modern world seems so devoid of vivacity in a sense it may be argued that the reason is that it has lost its ability to find humor in the eternal.

Plato's Symposium, as has already been stated, gives the best example of the importance of combining humor with seriousness and showing how life is best lived when it combines both. When Alcibiades arrives, one is reminded that love and virtue are quite extraordinary and capable of many forms. What Plato suggests is that eros is united to agape along with phileos, and that the virtuous life is one which views the three as One. By dialoguing and socializing, Socrates arrives at this idea.

Taoism on the other hand is purely Eastern in its reticence. It focuses upon meditation and silence. It recognizes the importance of the individual encounter with the Eternal. If Socrates' philosophy can be seen as the foundation for the Western world and the Christian philosophy that followed it, Taoism can be seen as foundational in the development of the Eastern religions and philosophies. While Taoism unilaterally rejects any "way" that calls itself such, aspects of its ideas concerning virtue can still be seen in some of the schools of Buddhism and Hinduism.

According to James R. Lewis (2001), "Buddha accepted the basic Hindu doctrines of reincarnation and karma, as well as the notion…that the ultimate goal of the religious life was to escape the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara)" (p. 34). However, what Buddha taught was that desire was what kept one bound to samsara. Nirvana, therefore, was "the Buddhist equivalent of moksha" (Lewis, p. 34). Nirvana referred to the extinction of desire. What this implies is that selfish desire is bad for Buddhists, and that one should look past one's self.

Although Buddha was not greatly given to metaphysical speculation, the two canons of Buddhist scripture that survive (the Theravada and the Mahayana) contain some elements of metaphysics -- especially the Mahayana, which contains scriptures the former does not -- texts that have been incorporated into the Buddhist scriptures.

It is the Mahayana tradition that takes a more charitable approach to the community: the enlightened souls strive to assist others in their quest for enlightenment. The critical components of healing are found here, by helping others: In this way, Mahayana Buddhism is similar to Plato's philosopher in the "Allegory of the Cave": it is the duty of the enlightened citizen to assist the unenlightened. Thus the virtue of Eastern philosophy extends through the various schools of thought, touches the school of Socrates and reaches back toward the Tao of Taoism.

Conclusion

From Socrates to Taoism, one can trace the thread of virtue that leads the seeker to the Eternal. For Socrates, it is the philosopher in the cave; for Chuang Tzu, it is the man who finds the Way by looking inward and rejoicing in the good. Interpretations of these two texts can present difficulties for purists, who strive to identify the specific meaning or cultural significance of words or places or historical figures. However, the Taoist might object to such scrupulosity, for it risks losing the Way by looking for "facts." Moreover, the Socratic philosopher can easily follow along with the dialogue without having to refer to many footnotes concerning translation. At the same time, any translation that one embarks upon should not be considered as a de facto or final. In consideration of the subject of virtue, both Socrates and Taoism suggest that one must undertake a journey to attain virtue: it is not something that is acquired -- but rather something that is sought. The Tao is the Way in which one may get it; the Light is the source which the Socratic philosopher pursues. The former works in silence; the latter works through dialoguing.

Reference List

Lewis, J.R. (2001). Satanism Today. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

Plato. (n.d.). The Apology. [trans. B. Jowett]. Internet Classics Archive. Retrieved from http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/apology.html

Plato. (n.d.). The Republic. [trans. B. Jowett]. Internet Classics Archive. Retrieved from http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.html

Tzu, Chuang. (1969). The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu. [trans. B. Watson].

NY: Columbia University Press.