Socio-economic status and race impacts on children's educational outcomes

¶ … negative impact on children's learning: (1) socio-economic status or, (2) race. To explore this issue, the following qualitative data collection approaches are used: (1) interview studies (2) participant observation, and (3) historical review. Lin (1998) notes that when investigating qualitative research, one must recognize qualitative research may be either positivist, where it documents practices leading to consistent results, or "interpretivist," where it seeks to understand the concepts of poverty and race and their meaning (p.162). These notions are considered in the analysis below.

Interview Studies

This paper describes the sampling and data collection procedures used to capture information on student learning, and analyzes the findings in this area. Rank (1994) researchers the socio-economic impact of poverty and wealth on multiple dimensions including children's education. Rank demonstrates the use of the interview approach in qualitative research in his work discussing socio-economic status and its impacts on education. Rank intimately describes his sampling technique, which involved creating a sample of random participants from a county chosen to represent the "overall population in the country" with respect to diversity, rural and urban occupants and economic status (Rank, 1994, p. 209). On gathering his sample and collecting data, Rank notes his sample is not a perfect match of all people of a low socio-economic status, but rather a general sample of people falling into a random sampling most resembling the status of individuals who are average welfare recipients (p. 219). This is one method researchers often use to help minimize liability and recognize the limitations associated with their studies.

When collecting and reporting data Rank interviewed respondents and collected quotes for his analysis that best represented what he called "major themes" or general assumptions he confirmed with the literature available on the effects of socio-economic status on education (Rank, 1994, p. 218). Response rates and the quality of information collected is reported by evaluation of the "consistency between oral responses" and information gathered from files of welfare recipients, along with information about how the interview "was explained to respondents, and the rapport" the researcher felt existed between people being interviewed and the interviewer (Rank, 1994; Lin, 1998, p. 162).

Rank's observations according to Lin (1998) represent the positive approach, suggesting that uncertainly in research is "reducible" by research designs that allow as many observations "as possible" on "what a hypothesis predicts will be an important dimension" (p. 169). In this case, race is viewed as an important factor impacting a child's success in the classroom and later in life. Students of minority status were more likely to be enrolled in welfare programs and more likely to live in areas with less access to funds for computers and other technologically advanced equipment to aid in education. Many were also more prone to the use of drugs, or to become victims of crime in school and outside of school, or know of someone who suffered a crime. While more minority than non-minority students seemed negatively impacted by these effects in education and otherwise, this study focused primarily on the role poverty played. The researcher merely notes that race correlated to a certain degree with one's socio-economic status in the population interviewed for this study.

His studies seem to also suggest familial disorganization was more evident among minorities of low socio-economic status, predicting and confirming this through his hypothesis-based study relying on interviews to confirm his results. People involved in the study seemed to suggest poverty or low socio-economic status had a negative impact on their lives, including their children's education, more so than other factors as race. To establish greater validity the researcher is sure to compare the results of his study with literature gathered on the subject. This is critical in an interview-based qualitative research approach, as is random sampling, because the results are more subject to subjectivity. This can stem from the participants involved or the researcher.

For example, participants asked questions on one day may respond one way but another way a different day, based on their surroundings, the environment interviewed in or the rapport established between the interviewee and person being interviewed. The results of the researcher may also lean somewhat toward validating the researcher's hypothesis which may lead to some subjective analysis. Fortunately in this case Rank (1994) conducts research providing alternative analysis of the results to confirm and legitimize his findings and study conclusions.

Historical Studies

Block, Balcazar & Keys (2001) explore the effects of race, poverty and disability on many aspects of life including childhood education and social and environmental disparity. The model used by the researchers is a historical study presenting a conceptual history and framework for reviewing the "interrelation of race, poverty, and disability" with respect to theory and action. The authors review three separate models during their discourse on race and poverty. Two models are pathological in nature, meaning they review the biological and cultural which evaluate poverty and disability. The "power" model as the authors describe throughout history, represents the relationship minority status or race has on one's success, achievement, ability and status (Block, Balcazar & Keys, 2001, p. 18). The researchers collect data and present data in a tabular format, presenting the similarities and differences between each of these models. This comparison approach allows those reviewing the study to note the strengths and weaknesses of the historical data gathered on the effects of these three elements on a child's education, living environment and future growth.

Sampling involved reviewing twentieth century models for race and poverty using pathology and biological models; social problem models evaluating immigration, urban shifts and behavioral problems; social policy and advocacy throughout history and its effects on education with respect to race and socio-economic status and supporting theories models. These generally viewed race in terms of superior or inferior throughout history.

The time frame family studies explored involved biological and pathology theories dating from the 1899 through the twentieth century. Interestingly, these researchers found that in early history, race was more likely to negatively impact child education than socio-economic status, especially during times in history when most people were at a disadvantage economically (as in during the depression). As researchers moved into the twentieth century however, there seems to be a trend in research leaning toward less emphasis on race and minority status, with many researchers turning away from terms like "morons" or "inferior" or "degenerates" and more focusing on terms like "poverty" and "poor" or "welfare status" (Block, Balcazar & Keys, 2001, p. 18). Historical data gathering included a review of researchers and psychologist reports and collection as described in a comparison table which the researcher then reviewed for similarities, differences and changes in theory and thought throughout history. Of all the approaches thus far, this approach seems most likely to represent or reflect how race and socio-economic status impact children in modern society.

As the researchers point out, what is important during one era is not as important during another. During the last few decades much emphasis has been given equality and justice, thus the researchers argue socio-economic status is more likely to impact quality of life and have a negative influence on factors including one's ability to succeed in school. Lin (1998) might assume this approach incorporates both the interpretive and the positive approach to research, as the researcher tends to provide hypothetical data or postulates what they believe the findings will reveal, but also backs this research with data collected over more than 100 years of research and theoretical practice. Gall, Borg & Gall, J. (2007) confirm often historical research toward education requires a synopsis of the results of multiple decades worth of research to confirm or disprove theories regarding phenomenon observed. Often the researcher acts more as an objective observer, collecting information over a defined period and analyzing that material. This is where the potential for subjective analysis comes to play.

Historical research is beneficial when one desires to display a graphical synopsis of research conducted because the researcher can use tools including a timeline or comparison chart, as was used in the participant observation study also observed for this analysis, to display an accurate testament to a given phenomenon (Hatch, 2002).

The downside of historical research is it fails to provide much in the way of testimony of actual participants, in this case students, when reflecting on research. Much of the qualitative research conducted in the past relied on methods other than historical research naturally; some tools included participant observation, the interview method, analysis of data from focus groups or a meta-analysis of research previously conducted (Hatch, 2002). It is interesting however, in this study to note the difference and impact history has on research and the results of research reported by qualitative researchers.

As Block, Balcazar & Keys, (2001) note, unlike the other studies reviewed for this paper, race seems to have more of a negative impact not only on education among children in early history, but also on other factors in their life, including on socio-economic status. This seems contrary to evidence provided by Anderson (1990) and other theorists that suggest socio-economic status is more relevant. If one reviews the works of researchers including Deyhle, Parker & Villenas (1999) however, researchers that take a new approach to qualitative research, which they refer to as "critical race theory" one cannot simply dismiss race as a historical phenomenon. Rather, these researchers suggest while race may seem more prevalent and negative in the past as suggested by Block, Balcazar & Keys (2001), it is just as important and relevant today as it was a century ago.

On closely observing the reports and data collected by Block, Balcazar & Keys (2001), one can conclude that an objective review of the data provides an accurate testimony of historical evidence supporting the theory that race has a negative impact on children and their education, and that race also impacts ones socio-economic status.

A key distinguishing feature here in historical analysis is the fact that many other methods fail to consider two plausible solutions to a question or problem. The historical approach suggests that both race and socio-economic status may be equally to blame for negatively impacting children in education and in life situations. This idea is not touched on in the works of other researchers analyzed for this study. This confirms the theories presented by Lin (1998) who suggests that a combination of approaches in qualitative research is most likely to provide the most accurate outcomes.

Conclusions

Pugach (2001) perhaps analyzes the situation best, noting that in educational research qualitative research is most likely to produce the widest range of possible outcomes and probably causes or answers to a given question of phenomenon. All of the approaches examined for this study have in common the desire to provide objective analysis and causal relationships between race, socio-economic status and the welfare of children, in education and in life. The preliminary studies explored, conducted more recently, place more emphasis on socio-economic status as a distinguishing factor leading to negative student achievement or outcomes.

This contrasts with the historical approach, which suggests a timeline exists, demonstrating while at first race lead to negative impacts on education, eventually people who were minorities suffered from poor or lower socio-economic status which ultimately led to an increased likelihood for negative outcomes including higher dropout rates, behavioral and substance abuse problems among children and young adults. One can best conclude the qualitative approach to research in education provides a well-rounded exploration of given phenomenon that considers both the subjective and objective causes and explanations for given phenomenon. One may also argue the qualitative approach is as valid as quantitative methods, if not more so, when conducting research in the field of education (Pugach, 2001).