Social biases in America: history, persistence, and reduction strategies

Social Biases: A Continuing Societal Dilemma

In most societies, discrimination is frowned but continues to be practiced, whether intentionally or unintentionally, directly or indirectly. Stereotyping and prejudice, as well, remain a societal concern; though these have diminished to a significant degree according to social scientists.

Social biases are like a thing of the past that is now embedded in our culture and we have grown to it. According to Mandel (2009), the history of America for example, in which the battle against slavery became a bloody chapter, influences why prejudice and discrimination is still persistent in America. Mandel points out: "On January 1, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery, but African-Americans continued to suffer from discrimination well into the 20th century until the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Many believe it continue to persist today." She added that Africans-Americans were forced to sit at the back of buses and were portrayed poorly in films and televisions. Prejudice of White Americans towards Black Americans is a phenomenon that had impact historically in social relations, policy and politics across the nation (Pearson, Dovidio, & Pratto, 2007).

Prejudice is more widespread and automatic (Fiske, 2004). While stereotypes are activated, maintained, and transmitted by socio-cultural forces such as family, friends, opinion leaders and the mass media (Ramasubramanian & Oliver, 2007), these forces could also be the key to reduce social bias in our society. The mass media, educational institutions and information technology will play a big role today in reducing social biases by not reinforcing stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.

Defining Social Biases

It is essential to define first the concepts of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination before we could understand fully the impact of social biases in our lives. What exactly constitutes one's bias and where does it stem from?

Prejudice and stereotypes can be both positive and negative depending on the group membership of the person holding such. However, even the benevolent prejudices can be equally problematic (Ramasubramanian & Oliver, 2007). Stereotypes "represent a specific kind of schema" formed through cognition while prejudice involves emotions. Stereotypes are beliefs about the characteristics of the members of a group and why. These are fixed ideas, a collective belief system. Stereotypes cannot be evaluated as accurate or inaccurate (faxed material).

On the contrary, discrimination is characterized as negative actions on the target enacted through holding prejudice and stereotypes. This result to unequal treatment like verbal hostility, rejection of outgroups, avoidance and segregation (faxed material).

"People are not cognitive misers but motivated tacticians," suggests Fiske (2004), arguing that motivation and cognition interplays at the earliest formation of ordinary bias. Plausible social motives such as belonging, understanding and self-enhancing influence ordinary social bias and are key building blocks of discrimination (Fiske, 2004; faxed material). Fiske challenged earlier beliefs that cognition alone is the culprit why people "automatically categorize and stereotype." She proposes that cognition, affect and motivation have to be addressed altogether to encourage more ethical behavior.

In addition to Fiske's thesis, Mandel (2009) points out that "prejudice and discrimination are an innate part of human condition" and that a perceived threat against one's core values could possibly lead someone to develop prejudicial attitudes.

Impact of social bias in people's lives

Social biases can be self-enhancing and damaging. The contact hypothesis suggests that stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination can be reduced through direct contact between members of different groups. However, this was proved applicable only to specific groups and situations. In a study between Blacks and Whites and Christians and Muslims, friendly contact with out-groups has reduced implicit prejudice only for Blacks toward Whites and Muslims toward Christians, but not the other way around (Henry & Hardin, 2006). This is because their status in the society at present is not equal.

The study of Pearson, Dovidio, and Pratto (2007) on the multidimensional nature of intergroup hate and prejudice of Whites toward Blacks in the United States legal system revealed that the United States justice "is not necessarily color blind." The study says,

Racial attitudes toward Black assailants mattered significantly in severity of sentencing and support for death penalty… (moderated by the provocation of the attack). However, regardless of whether prejudice operated in a more direct or indirect manner, the consequences were the same -- more severe treatment of Blacks.

The authors propose that understanding the dynamics of White's reactions to crimes committed by Blacks against Whites can have important social implications.

Blatant bias from an outgroup encourages ingroup cohesion, thus enhancing self and strengthening group belonging. But the danger in avoidance and group segmentation is that they "certainly do not learn anything new." (faxed material)

Counter-stereotypic media portrayals

Mediated communication plays an important role in creating and reinforcing cultural stereotypes. "Exposure to even a single or a few media exemplars can often be powerful enough to create impressions about issues, peoples and places, especially when little or no first-hand, non-mediated sources of information are available" (Ramasubramanian & Oliver, 2007).

Several communication theories suggest that media is a powerful tool not only in delivering information but of persuading people and building public opinion as well. Thus, if news reports, sitcoms, comedy shows, movies and talk shows will be free of stereotypic portrayals of any given race; social biases will be reduced if not totally negated.

Eliminating biases is indeed challenging. Cultural prejudice can be possibly eliminated but not discrimination (Mandel, 2009). Understanding one's culture can be an important step to reduce bias. Constructive intergroup contact can mitigate bias and its effects on both perceivers and its targets (faxed material). While physical contact and first-hand information remains the ideal way to achieve the objective of social bias reduction, this may not be feasible to everyone. In this digital age wherein almost all people in the world are interconnected, the role of the mass media and information technology comes into play.

Intergroup friendship and equal status in our society cannot be achieved if the media continue to reinforce stereotyping. Fiske (2004) said that constructive cognition can result only from the availability of appropriate information, ethical motivation and adaptive affect. Increased education through the mass media and educational institutions will complement with "broad, institutional, society-wide improvement" on the road towards overcoming social biases.

References:

Faxed material

Fiske, S. (2004) Intent and Ordinary Bias: Unintended Thought and Social Motivation Create Casual Prejudice. Social Justice Research, Vol. 17 Issue 2, p117-127, 11p. Retrieved July 7, 2009 from EBSCO online database http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s8h&AN=13079636&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Henry, P.J. And Hardin, C. (2006). The Contact Hypothesis Revisited. Status Bias in the Reduction of Implicit Prejudice in the United States and Lebanon. Association of Psychological Science. Vol.1-7 -- Number 10. Retrieved July 7, 2009 from EBSCO online database http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rst&AN=23000285&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Mandel, I. (2009). Cultural Prejudice & Discrimination. Research Starters Sociology, 2009, p1-6, 6p. Retrieved July 7, 2009 from EBSCO online database http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rst&AN=36267911&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Pearson, A., Dovidio, J., & Pratto, F. (2007).Racial Prejudice, Intergroup Hate, and Blatant and Subtle Bias of Whites toward Blacks in Legal Decision Making in the United States. International Journal of Psychology & Psychological Therapy, 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, p145-158, 14p. Retrieved July 8, 2009 from EBSCO online database Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s8h&AN=27747337&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Ramasubramanian, S. & Oliver, M. (2007). Activating and Suppressing Hostile and Benevolent Racism: Evidence for Comparative Media Stereotyping. Media Psychology, 9, 623-646. Retrieved July 6, 2009 from EBSCO online database. Full text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=25183485&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site