10th-Century Islamic Politics: Caliphates and Fragmentation

The Decline of Abbasid Power

Karen Armstrong writes, "Muslims had accepted the caliphate because it guaranteed the unity of the ummah, but once the caliphs showed that they could not integrate the empire any longer, they were content to relegate them to symbolic status" (2000, p. 84). She is referring to the Abbasid Caliphate. This caliphate claimed theocratic power, tracing its authority directly to the Prophet, and relied on narrative and interpretive hadith for its influence. Having destroyed the Umayyads and moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the Abbasids alienated Arabs by integrating non-Arabs into the ruling sector. Despite producing an extraordinary society of cultured scholars and scientists, the imperial community eventually felt this tension acutely.

In the tenth century, the Turks and their Mamluk generals became more powerful than the Abbasids. As a result, Abbasid piety was no longer rooted in politics that responded to current events. They made other mistakes as well: according to Endress, these included submitting judges to inquisitions and forcing religious institutions to embrace their rationalist theology (2002, p. 116). The Abbasid administration and its traditions, founded on Iranian agrarian society, failed to keep pace with urban realities. The time of unrest was ripe for social reform and resistance to Abbasid power. With the caliphate thus weakened, the great empire split apart as more regions gained autonomy. As Endress writes, "In place of the Islamic empire as a political institution there remained an Islamic cultural sphere" (2002, p. 116).

The Buyids and the Rise of Local Authority

Taking advantage of this disintegration of centralized power, the Iranian Buyids stepped in. These were hardy mountain men who in 945 conquered Iraq, where fighting between Turks and Arabs over control was already underway. According to Endress, "While they 'rescued' the caliph they made him entirely their puppet and took over political power with the office of chief amir" (2002, p. 116). They relied on exploitation of land ownership through military land tenure to become the major eastern power. Believing in the restoration of the old Persian empire, they rekindled the practices and images of the Sassanid dynasty to build their authority (Goldschmidt & Davidson, 2005, p. 87). They governed even while the Abbasids retained nominal power.

During this period, a clear separation between Sunni and Shiite became evident. What was most significant, however, was that local power came to dominate. The Buyids believed in the formation of native states rather than external control by non-natives, and their legitimacy was traced to local genealogies. This move was significant in grounding the notion of national, rather than imperial, rule. They were a model for the establishment of local community control without the ambition of total domination over the larger community.

Conclusion: Local Rule as the Better Model

The most instructive model from this period is that of the Buyids. It is important to emphasize local cultures and traditions—whether one is Sunni or Shia, and no matter where one places the authority of law. In founding a renewed Persian culture, which ultimately did not endure, their effort was nonetheless commendable for recognizing the differences among the varied Islamic populations of the region. Moreover, empire is rarely beneficial for those on the lower rungs of society, who risk exploitation under distant, centralized rule.

The community must rely on local inspiration and leadership rather than dictates from a remote centralized source—only in this way does it keep its integrity and culture intact. Islamic community and its unity must be based on broader, more general notions of religious belonging rather than imposed rule. A league or confederation could be formed to maintain unity without requiring the coercive structures of empire.

Bibliography

Armstrong, Karen. (2000). Islam: A short history. New York: Modern Library.

Brett, Michael. (2001). The rise of the Fatimids: The world of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the tenth century CE. Leiden: Brill.

Endress, G. (2002). Islam: An historical introduction. C. Hillenbrand (Trans.). New York: Columbia University Press.

Goldschmidt, Arthur, & Lawrence Davidson. (2005). A concise history of the Middle East (8th ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Hodgson, M. G. S. (1974). The venture of Islam: Conscience and history in a world civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.