Biological and Psychological Basis of Learning and Memory

Introduction

The human brain is the core of every bodily function, controlling both learning and memory and the interdependence of each concept. The way in which the brain functions is broadly referred to as neural processes linked to learning and memory. The relationship between learning and memory is evident in the fact that learning takes place when memory is engaged, while memory is stimulated after the learning process has occurred. Every process that characterizes human activity originates from the brain because it is the center of all functioning parts of the body.

As Wickens (2005) stated, learning cannot take place without memory, though some memories can be inborn — such as essential reflexes and intuitions (p. 260). This implies that the learning process is intricately intertwined with memory through a procedure that is continually transformed and updated throughout life. The neuroanatomy of learning and memory resists simple explanation due to the complex nature and large number of cells and structures involved.

Neuroanatomy and Neural Processes of Learning

Similar to memory, the learning process significantly relies on electrical and chemical changes in the neuron synapse. However, learning does not only involve changes in synaptic efficacy brought about by the combination of various types of synchronized environmental stimulation (Okano, Hirano & Balaban, 2000). Through certain experiments — such as song learning in birds — brain systems are shown to contribute in significant ways to the learning process by producing unlearned biases. These unlearned biases from brain systems can manifest in both sensory and motor characteristics of learned behaviors. Information is stored in the central nervous system through synaptic, cellular, and molecular events or processes. Therefore, new learning involves the formation of new synapses and neurons, as well as changes in existing synapses driven by biochemical signals.

The learning process takes place through changes in synapses, neurons, and molecular processes brought about by biochemical signals. While structural changes at the synapse may contribute to long-term storage of information, new synapses are either formed or eliminated through training. Training may not only contribute to synaptic reorganization but also result in new learning because of changes to synapses and neurons through biochemical signals. Generally, the process of learning involves the creation of new synapses, reorganization of synaptic input, changes in interneuron modulation, and changes in synaptic transmitters.

Neuroanatomy and Neural Processes of Memory

As one of the most essential mental processes, memory is studied by neuroscientists using highly diverse strategies, such as synaptic plasticity and regulatory mechanisms (Okano, Hirano & Balaban, 2000). The first mechanism primarily focuses on the roles that synaptic plasticity plays in motor learning, particularly with regard to long-term depression in the cerebellum. In contrast, the regulatory mechanism employs a chick-quail transplantation system on identified brain regions to examine the process by which neural populations interact during development to create behaviorally significant neural circuits and to clarify neurobiological links of motor and perceptual predispositions.

The acquisition of procedural memory and motor learning involves the cerebellum, which plays a crucial role in this process. Moreover, the storage and consolidation of both short-term and long-term memory involves the cerebral cortex — including the hippocampus, memory storage areas, and the limbic system — all of which play significant roles (Wickens, 2005). The conversion of information from working memory to long-term memory is stimulated and affected by the amygdala, which also helps in encoding emotional information into both short-term and long-term memories.

Research has demonstrated that the basal ganglia play a significant role in learning and memory, as they aid in the acquisition of habits involving stimulus-response associations and problem solving. The basal ganglia are also crucial in procedures involving unconscious memory, including implicit memory and motor skills. Through systematic and cumulative research with rats and monkeys, and in relation to research on humans, structures and connections significant for declarative memory were identified. These connections and structures were found in the medial temporal lobe and the central diencephalon (Zola-Morgan & Squire, 1993, p. 559). Important structures in the medial temporal lobe include the hippocampus, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices, while those in the diencephalon include the mediodorsal nucleus, anterior thalamic nucleus, and medullary lamina.

Although the temporal structures and medial thalamus are important components of the memory system and are fundamental for the development of long-term declarative memory, memory generally relies on this system for only a short period of time after learning has taken place. Consequently, the medial temporal lobe and medial thalamic structures are not the permanent storehouse for long-term memory — they are essential only in the period immediately following new learning. In addition, short-term memory is independent of these brain structures and remains completely intact in amnesia, regardless of whether it is assessed through traditional methods or verbal and non-verbal tests.

Conclusion

Learning and memory are neural processes that are closely related and dependent on one another. Learning is a process that takes place after information has been acquired through memory — encoded, stored, and retrieved. As a result of this strong link, neither process can function independently, because they are intricately interwoven.