Hazardous Materials Effects on Fire Service Personnel

Introduction

Given the increasing number of incidents in which fire service personnel have suffered injuries or illness at work sites through contact with hazardous materials, it was deemed necessary to conduct research into the nature and likelihood of such harms. This paper aims to identify the hazardous materials to which fire service staff may be exposed at various sites, examine the effects those materials can have on personnel who come into contact with them, and explore methods for managing affected individuals. It also considers how such incidents can be prevented from recurring.

This paper examines hazardous materials in a broad and inclusive scope rather than focusing on a single substance in a controlled laboratory setting. It does not address any particular exposure incident in a specific county, state, or nation, but instead provides general coverage applicable to any individual, institution, or jurisdiction.

Literature Review

The University Fire Brigade Training Department Manual (2009) states: "The term hazardous materials covers a broad range of substances with a wide variety of effects. Some materials are highly toxic to humans. Others are dangerous primarily because they are flammable, though many can cause health effects as well. Exposure to various hazardous materials may have immediate effects, delayed effects, or no detectable effects at all."

A hazardous substance may be defined as any substance that, because of its quantity, concentration, or physical or chemical characteristics, poses a significant present or potential hazard — according to federal, state, and/or local standards and regulations — to human health and safety or to the environment if released from its intended container.

Given the need to make the understanding of hazardous materials more accessible to all fire service staff, this research was conducted and this report written, since the existing technical literature is not always readily comprehensible to all service personnel.

Methodology

The material used in this report was drawn extensively from existing sources, which were analyzed and synthesized in order to present technical subject matter from a more accessible perspective. Books, journals, manuals, and online resources served as primary sources of data and information.

Hazardous Materials Incidents: An Overview

A hazardous materials incident is any incident involving the release, abandonment, discharge, or deposit of any hazardous material from its intended container that has the potential to harm persons, property, or the environment.

These materials may be present at non-structural alarms, transportation incidents, and residential and commercial occupancies — all situations in which fire service personnel may be required to respond. Hazardous materials include chemicals, infectious agents, and radioactive hazards. A single chemical may carry more than one hazard; for example, a flammable liquid may also be toxic.

Given the varied forms hazardous materials can take, it is important to distinguish between exposure and contamination. An individual is exposed when a chemical, infectious material, radioactive substance, or other agent enters or comes into direct contact with the body. Contamination occurs when the hazardous substance remains on the clothing, hair, skin, or another part of that individual's body. Exposure can occur without contamination — for instance, carbon monoxide does not cling to turnout clothing, so contamination will not occur. Contamination, however, usually results in exposure unless only the outside of protective clothing is affected.

Modes of Exposure

There are three primary routes through which hazardous materials can enter the body: absorption through the skin, inhalation through the lungs, and ingestion through the mouth.

Absorption

Human skin acts as a barrier whose protective effectiveness varies depending on its condition, the site of contact, and the properties of the hazardous material. Exposure through the skin is time-dependent — the longer the contact, the greater the amount of chemical absorbed. The rate of absorption also varies with skin temperature and blood supply at the entry site. For example, areas rich in hair follicles, such as the scalp, forehead, jaw, and underarm, allow significantly greater absorption than other parts of the body. Higher concentrations of material in contact with the skin also tend to result in greater absorption. As a general rule, the more chemical absorbed, the more severe the health effects. Damaged skin is more susceptible and allows increased chemical absorption compared with intact skin.

Inhalation

The lungs serve as the exchange point between the atmosphere and the human body. Oxygen and other substances pass from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide passes from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. Many chemicals are absorbed through the lungs after inhalation, though the lungs do offer some protection through mucous cells lining the nose, which trap inhaled particles.

Like the skin, the lungs may serve only as a route of entry and may not themselves be damaged by the inhaled hazardous material. For instance, carbon monoxide easily enters the bloodstream when inhaled and binds with the oxygen-carrying component of red blood cells, preventing oxygen from reaching the body's tissues.

Ingestion

Although hazardous material exposure through ingestion is more commonly associated with suicide attempts and childhood poisoning, it can occur in occupational settings when contaminated hands or clothing come into contact with the mouth. It is also possible to ingest toxic materials by eating or smoking in environments where food and cigarettes can become contaminated. In such cases, the hazardous material can significantly impair the health and performance of fire service personnel.

In general, when addressing any form of exposure, it is important to document the amount of exposure — including the concentration of the chemical in air (if inhaled), the volume (if swallowed), or the extent of body surface area affected. The duration of exposure must also be recorded, since the longer the material remains in contact with body tissues, the greater the amount absorbed (Green & Turk, 1978).

Types of Toxic Effects

Hazardous materials can produce a range of effects on fire service personnel. Some effects are more likely to result from short-term, high-level exposures, while others arise from prolonged exposure over time. A single chemical may produce multiple types of effects.

Asphyxiants

Asphyxiants are gases that deprive body tissues of oxygen. There are two types: simple asphyxiants, which displace oxygen in the environment, and chemical asphyxiants, which prevent the body's tissues from using oxygen even when sufficient oxygen is being inhaled. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide are examples of chemical asphyxiants and represent common hazards in fire service operations.

Corrosives

Corrosives can cause irreversible tissue damage that, in milder cases, may resemble a heat burn. Acids and alkalis (bases) are corrosive substances, and their effects depend on the concentration and strength of the chemical. The corrosive effect is among the most serious consequences of prolonged exposure to hazardous chemicals or gases. Fire brigade personnel must take particular care to limit their exposure to corrosive elements in the workplace.

Irritants

Irritants cause temporary — though sometimes severe — inflammation of the eyes, skin, or respiratory tract. Repeated exposure to irritants may lead to permanent damage over time. Symptoms include coughing, difficulty breathing, itching, and redness of the skin and eyes.

Sensitizers

Sensitizers can cause allergic reactions following repeated exposure. The reaction may appear several hours after exposure and can manifest as a skin rash or, if the sensitizer is inhaled, an asthma-like response.

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer. They may affect organs distant from the original site of entry into the body. Examples include benzene, which is associated with leukemia; vinyl chloride, which is linked to a specific type of liver cancer; and asbestos, which causes a specific type of lung cancer and increases the risk of all lung cancers among exposed individuals. Fire brigade personnel are continually at risk of exposure to carcinogens, making their long-term health a serious concern. When a site is identified as containing carcinogenic substances, appropriate protective equipment must be provided before personnel are permitted to access it.

Neurotoxic Chemicals

Neurotoxic chemicals can cause reversible or irreversible damage to the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) or the peripheral nervous system (the nerves responsible for movement and sensation in the arms, hands, legs, and feet). Such damage can significantly impair a firefighter's capacity to perform their duties if adequate protection is not provided.

Radioactive Hazards

Radioactive materials may emit alpha or beta particles or gamma rays. Each type of radiation is capable of destroying cells, and in an emergency situation personnel may know only that a material is radioactive without knowing which type of radiation it emits. The brigade should minimize exposure by limiting time near the radiation source, increasing distance from it, and using appropriate shielding. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and bunker gear can shield personnel from most alpha and beta radiation; several inches of lead are necessary to shield against gamma radiation. As with other forms of exposure, if clothing or skin becomes contaminated with a radioactive substance, exposure will continue until decontamination is completed (Chris, 2009).

Infectious (Etiologic) Agents

Like chemicals, biological agents can enter the human body primarily through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. They can also enter the bloodstream directly through breaks in the skin.

Infectious agents include viruses such as hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the herpes virus. In emergency response settings, the viruses that cause hepatitis and AIDS are most readily transmitted through exposure to blood and other body fluids. Personnel should avoid exposure to blood and all other body fluids, including urine, feces, vomit, and body tissues.

Conclusion and Recommendations

It is critical that the fire service provide a safe working environment for its personnel and protect them from exposure to hazardous materials. The preventive measures discussed throughout this paper must be consistently followed.

Before handling any material they may encounter at a work site, brigade members should read and understand all manufacturer labels, manuals, and instructions in order to be informed about the substances they are working with.

In addition, a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that provides essential information on the potential health effects of exposure to chemicals or other potentially dangerous substances, as well as safe working procedures for handling chemical products (NFPA, 1975). All members of a fire service unit should be required to read this document. It will help them reduce the risk of exposure, recognize signs of exposure, and know how to respond appropriately.

Finally, effective scene management is among the simplest and most impactful protective measures available. As discussed above, when properly implemented, it can ensure the safest possible handling of hazardous incidents and help prevent exposure entirely — at no additional human or financial cost.

References

Chris K. (2009). Laboratory close-out procedures and transportation of hazardous materials. Retrieved March 30, 2010, from www.ehs.indiana.edu/lab_closeout_chem_transport.shtml

Green, & Turk. (1978). Safety in working with chemicals. New York, NY: MacMillan.

NFPA. (1975). Fire protection guide on hazardous materials. Boston, MA: National Fire Protection Association.

Tchobanoglous, T. (1977). Solid wastes. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

University Fire Brigade Training Department Manual. (2009). Hazardous material. Retrieved March 30, 2010, from www.jamaicafirebrigade.org/citizenscharterjune09.pdf