Human Learning and Memory: Four Types Explained

Introduction to Learning and Memory

Learning is something that occurs all the time. Sometimes learning is intentional, and other times it happens unintentionally. According to Neil Carlson, learning can best be described as "the process by which experiences change our nervous system and hence our behavior" (431). Carlson concludes that learning is a process in which human behavior changes as a result of an outside stimulus. He claims that it is various stimuli — people, situations, events, or objects — that interact with the human nervous system and alter behavior in some way. When that alteration occurs, learning has taken place in the human brain. He refers to these alterations or changes as "memory" (431).

Carlson also explains that there are four different types of learning: "perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, motor learning, and relational learning" (431). All four types can influence one or more of the others during the learning process. Although they can interact, each type has distinct and unique features. Understanding how learning is classified in behavioral science helps clarify how these categories relate to one another.

Perceptual Learning

Perceptual learning is "the ability to recognize stimuli that have been perceived before" (431). This type of learning occurs when a person is repeatedly exposed to specific stimuli. It can greatly influence how a person reacts to the environment, and it involves the ability to identify and categorize things and situations. The theory holds that if a person cannot readily recognize particular stimuli, then he or she cannot learn how to behave appropriately. All senses are engaged with this learning type, and it mainly involves changes in the sensory systems.

Research shows that if perceptual learning begins between the ages of 2 and 6, the student will be better prepared for a lifetime of education, because the stimuli of continuous learning are presented during the most receptive developmental window. Perceptual learning has been studied extensively in relation to early childhood cognitive development.

Stimulus-Response Learning and Conditioning

Stimulus-response learning is the second type described by Carlson. It is defined as "the ability to learn to perform a particular behavior when a particular stimulus is present" (431). This type of learning involves two categories: classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning.

With classical conditioning, learning occurs when an unimportant stimulus acquires the properties of an important stimulus. When a learner is able to associate two or more stimuli with one another, classical conditioning has taken place — one stimulus has prompted a behavior as a result of its relationship to a second stimulus.

Instrumental conditioning, sometimes called operant learning, involves reinforcement that can be either positive or negative. This is a directly learned behavior: the learner acquires a behavior as a direct result of its consequence. When a behavior is followed by a favorable consequence, it is more likely to recur. However, if the behavior is followed by a negative or painful consequence, it is less likely to happen again.

Conclusion

Learning is best defined by Neil Carlson as the process of changing human behavior as the result of constant stimuli entering the brain through one of the five senses. There are four main types of learning and, generally, these four types influence and interact with one another. The stimulus is then stored in the brain and becomes a retained memory. The more memories stored in a person's brain, the more effectively that person is acquiring new material. Learning leads to memory, and memory leads to learning. Every person learns differently; however, every person takes in stimuli that affect their learning and memory in one form or another.