Nietzsche on Nihilism, Superman, and Modern Morality

Introduction to Nietzsche's Nihilism

"Nihilism" was the term used by Friedrich Nietzsche to describe what he considered the devaluation of the highest values posited by the ascetic ideal. The age in which he lived was viewed by the German philosopher as one of passive nihilism, which he defined as the unawareness of the fact that religious and philosophical absolutes had dissolved with the emergence of 19th-century Positivism. Since traditional morality collapsed, along with its metaphysical and theological foundations, the only thing that remained was a sense of meaninglessness and purposelessness.

The triumph of meaninglessness coincides with the triumph of nihilism, captured in the slogan "God is dead." Nietzsche believed that people would begin seeking absoluteness in nationalism, just as they had previously done in philosophy and religion — a conception that later led to catastrophic consequences.

Nihilism is most often associated with Nietzsche. The philosopher felt that there is no objective order or structure in the world except the subjective ones each person imposes upon it. Consequently, the nihilist ends up discovering that all values are baseless and that reason is powerless. "Every belief, every considering something-true is necessarily false because there is simply no true world," Nietzsche writes in his Will to Power. He also argues: "Nihilism is . . . not only the belief that everything deserves to perish; but one actually puts one's shoulder to the plough; one destroys" — which is equivalent to saying that all imposed values and meanings must be repudiated.

Under the scrutiny of nihilism, "the highest values devalue themselves. The aim is lacking, and 'Why' finds no answer," the philosopher writes in his Will to Power. Nihilism will eventually expose all beliefs and commonly recognized truths as mere symptoms of a declining Western illusion. Meaning, relevance, and purpose shall collapse in an all-destructive event, resulting in the greatest known crisis of humanity. In the Will to Power, Nietzsche writes: "What I relate is the history of the next two centuries. I describe what is coming, what can no longer come differently: the advent of nihilism. . . . For some time now our whole European culture has been moving as toward a catastrophe, with a tortured tension that is growing from decade to decade: restlessly, violently, headlong, like a river that wants to reach the end."

Believing that Nietzsche's evaluation was accurate, artists and philosophers further developed his thoughts. Oswald Spengler observed in his book The Decline of the West (1926) that religious, artistic, and political traditions were severely weakened and destroyed by the workings of distinct nihilistic postures. For instance, he stated that the Faustian nihilist "shatters the ideals," the Apollinian nihilist "watches them crumble before his eyes," while the Indian nihilist "withdraws from their presence into himself." Western civilization is crumbling, Spengler argued, because its epistemological authority and ontological foundation are gradually destroyed by nihilism. He also found that modern Western Epicureanism and Stoicism might be associated with the negation of reality and resignation, popularized by Eastern religions.

Slave Morality, Science, and the Death of God

The events that caused nihilism to appear were the decay of traditional morality and the development of science. Nietzsche expressed his views on traditional morality by concentrating on the typology of "slave" and "master" morality. He examined the etymology of the German words gut and böse (good and bad) and arrived at the conclusion that the original distinction between good and bad was a descriptive one — a simple, non-moral reference to those who were masters as opposed to those who were slaves.

The moral dimension of the issue surfaced when slaves began to "avenge" themselves by converting attributes of mastery into vices. For instance, they promoted the belief that the meek shall inherit the earth, as opposed to the prevailing truth that the favored were powerful and "good." Pride became a sin, and competition, pride, and autonomy were gradually replaced with charity, humility, and obedience.

Another important factor in the victory of this "slave morality" was the claim that it was the only true morality. Absoluteness is essential to both philosophical and religious ethics. Undermining the absolute character of this type of morality was the most insidious and notable work of nihilism. Judeo-Christianity was declining because it could no longer manage to make people believe in the absoluteness of traditional morality. "God is dead" because people manifest an ever-growing optimism toward science and technology and the benefits they bring to everyday life.

However, it must be said that unlimited optimism in science and technology creates the possibility of self-destruction on a global scale. It could be considered the cause of the current paranoid condition that pushes nations toward a strong-arm approach. Individuals are gradually being substituted by intelligent machines, while the robotic ideal grows ever closer. Material existence prevails, with no care for the soul. The adverse effect is that religion comes to constitute a refuge — an answer to the new ideals of the world. Ironically, it would seem that the very force that weakened the foundation of religious morality in the first place now contributes to the revival of religion.

If science and technology were deployed for the benefit of all society, rather than for the benefit of a very slim minority, the necessity of seeking refuge in irrational religious faith would not carry the pathological manifestations it currently does.

The Superman and the Last Man

Nietzsche's influence dominates mainstream secular thinking in our time, but he is often misinterpreted or analyzed in conjunction with events he did not take into consideration. For instance, his idea of the "Superman" or Übermensch is usually associated with the Nazis and the way they incorporated it into their conception of an Aryan master race.

Although there are many ways in which Nietzsche's philosophy was adapted to justify pathological behaviors, the truth is that Nietzsche can be considered a serious thinker willing to confront the problems of his time. One of his greatest merits is that he tried to introduce a new ideal of humanity — a human possibility to which modern individuals could aspire — that contrasted with the homogenized mass into which people were being transformed by religion and traditional beliefs. Nietzsche despised those who were willingly caught up in this homogenization, individuals he referred to as "the Last Man" (people who go to church every Sunday, for instance, might be included in this category).

The conflict between the Superman and the Last Man has had an enormous influence on modern popular culture. The way heroism is perceived today, or the ideal of a well-lived life, draws on Nietzsche's ideas. The Superman is typically a larger-than-life character who decides what to do as he moves forward, fighting the repressive and conformist rule of the Last Man, depicted as the ultimate villain. The theme is repeated across countless narratives, with at its core a risk-taking, alienated, and bold individual who is always fighting against the system. He may be a passionate and charismatic figure, in touch with his instincts, aware of his desires, and unconcerned with rules and laws — which, in his view, are designed for lesser beings represented by the Last Man, a vegetative figure with no boldness or initiative.

Aspiring to the heroism of a Christian saint is considered bizarre today. The new image of human nobility is now measured against Nietzschean ideals. However, the Superman is a tragic figure whose essential nobility lies in his defiance — in his assertion of self against pointlessness and against the forces seeking to crush him. The Übermensch ethic to live boldly and defiantly has since devolved: the new ethic demands living extravagantly. The vulgarized Superman is typified by the individual who strives to realize some dissolute dream rather than living authentically and stoically in a world lacking meaning or hope.