This paper presents a brief survey of major philosophical positions on the existence of God. It examines three traditional proofs — the argument from Design, the cosmological argument, and the ontological argument — alongside the contributions of thinkers such as Kant, Kierkegaard, and Pascal. The paper then considers opposing views from Nietzsche, Feuerbach, Marx, and Sartre, including challenges based on free will, omniscience, and the existentialist claim that existence precedes essence. The paper concludes that the debate produces a philosophical stalemate, as neither side can offer conclusive objective proof.
Proof of God's existence can be found in various arguments presented by many major figures in philosophy. Of course, the arguments against God's existence are equally profound. This paper presents a brief overview of the arguments both for and against the existence of God.
Major philosophical figures have consistently contradicted one another on the question of God's existence, and their positions often depend on their own spiritual orientations. One major problem is the supernatural nature of God, which does not lend itself to empirical evidence. However, Karl Popper determined that this is precisely what makes God's existence undeniable — a non-falsifiable hypothesis, by virtue of not being refutable through scientific methods.
Pascal points out that, because of this lack of attainable proof, belief is a gamble — but one in which belief holds the winning hand. Kant concentrated on morality and the idea that if human beings are capable of developing moral ideals, it is quite rational to posit a God on whom these morals are grounded. He asserts that faith is consistent with his categorical imperative. Kierkegaard agrees with Kant on this point and further asserts that, though God cannot be found through reason, reason has no place in faith because God is beyond reason (Craig 29; Jeff 41).
Three traditional proofs of God's existence are: the argument from Design, the cosmological argument, and the ontological argument. The argument from Design states that the intricate mechanism of the universe could not have come about through mere chance, and therefore God must have designed it. The ontological argument states that, since God is perfect, he must exist — because he is the culmination of all perfection, and if he did not exist he would not be perfect. His perfection alone, therefore, indicates his existence. The cosmological argument states that everything in existence has a cause, but there must have been an initial cause to set all other causes in motion. That initial cause is God (Craig 27).
"Nietzsche, Marx, Sartre, and existentialist critiques"
Kant's own ideas about reason return to complicate his position, for he asserts that we cannot know reality directly as the thing-in-itself, and that what is real in itself lies outside human experience. Therefore, even if God exists, we cannot know God as he truly is. The idea of free will presents a further stumbling block, as many philosophers contend that free will and an omniscient God are contradictory concepts. The notion of an omnipotent God faces similar scrutiny.
The atheist-existentialist argument focuses on God conceived as a sentient being and on the principle that existence precedes essence. If this is true, then a sentient being — by the very definition of "sentient" — cannot be initially perfect, and therefore God cannot exist. Sartre supports this line of thought, stating that such a conception is a contradiction in terms (Pojman 44).
Ultimately, the arguments for God's existence meet with strong opposition, resulting in a philosophical stalemate. What the discussion boils down to is subjective material and experience that cannot be proven or disproved objectively. The only comfort available in this situation is that, whatever their views while alive, the classical philosophers have all passed on and discovered the ultimate truth of the matter through absolute means. We can at least rest assured that each of us will be afforded the same opportunity at some point. It is only then that the debate will finally rest.
Craig, William, Michael Murry, and J.P. Moreland (eds.). Philosophy of Religion: A Reader and Guide. Camden, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2002.
Jordan, Jeff. "Pragmatic Arguments for Belief in God." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2004 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
Pojman, Louis P. Philosophy of Religion: An Anthology, Fourth Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2003.
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