Shakespeare and Burns: National Bards and British Identity

Introduction

William Shakespeare and Robert Burns are both iconic figures in the UK. Also known as the Bard of Avon, Shakespeare is often regarded as England's national poet and is considered the world's greatest English writer and dramatist. During his lifetime, Shakespeare authored tens of plays, over a hundred sonnets, and several narrative poems and verses (Marche, 2012). Shakespeare's work has been translated into virtually all major languages of the world and is performed more regularly than that of any other writer. Robert Burns, born close to one and a half centuries after the death of Shakespeare, was also a prominent poet. Similar to Shakespeare, Burns is regarded as Scotland's national poet (Hogg, 2008). Referred to as the Bard of Ayrshire, Burns is also recognised worldwide for his work (Cairney, 2000). As poets and playwrights, both Shakespeare and Burns have substantially influenced English literature and language as well as the British national identity. How did they come to acquire this status? This question constitutes the focus of this paper, which specifically demonstrates how Shakespeare and Burns became national bards and examines their influence on English, Scottish, and British national identity.

Shakespeare was born and grew up in Warwickshire's market town of Stratford-upon-Avon. Much of his personal life remains a mystery, and it is not known exactly when he was born; however, biographic records indicate that he was baptised on 26 April 1564 (Ellis, 2012). Shakespeare is believed to have begun his writing and acting career in London sometime between the late 1580s and the early 1590s. By 1592, he was a popular figure in the London theatre scene, with Richard III and Henry VI among his earliest plays. Shakespeare would later establish an acting company — Lord Chamberlain's Men — alongside other partners. He allegedly died in 1616, leaving behind an unmatched legacy of poetry and drama (Marche, 2012).

William Shakespeare: Life and Work

Over the course of his twenty years as a playwright, Shakespeare authored a total of 38 plays and 154 sonnets, covering themes as diverse as histories, tragedies, and comedies (Ellis, 2012). Popular works include Romeo and Juliet, Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Comedy of Errors, Titus Andronicus, Hamlet, and Macbeth (Fernandez, 2016). His works captured the entire spectrum of human emotion — love, romance, beauty, reconciliation, forgiveness, betrayal, tragedy, and politics. For example, his earliest plays, especially Henry V, Henry VI, and Richard II, depicted the destruction associated with corrupt rulers, while Hamlet portrays human temperament, betrayal, revenge, and moral collapse.

As a playwright, Shakespeare is renowned for his distinctive style of writing. He is well known for his outstanding use of metaphors, lyrical techniques, rhetorical devices, and reflective soliloquies (Ellis, 2012), as well as his ingenious choice of words and creative construction of English phrases. He is also recognised for his imaginative combination of different genres — comedies, tragedies, and histories — within a single work (Marche, 2012). His accomplished output has led some historians to wonder how a man with an uncertain educational background could pen poems and plays with such perfection (Fernandez, 2016).

Shakespeare did not receive as much admiration during his lifetime as he did after his death. Several years following his death, he was crowned the title Bard of Avon and recognised as England's national poet. In the four centuries since, his work has robustly influenced literature and theatre — specifically the English language, romantic poetry, and drama. Even when details of his personal life remain scanty, his poems, sonnets, and plays have been performed in villages, cities, and countries around the world, appealing to virtually every known human emotion and carrying universal themes that speak to peasants and kings alike. To date, there have been more than 400 film adaptations of Shakespeare's work (BBC, 2017a). Contemporary films drawing on his plays include Throne of Blood (1957), Tombstone (1993), Romeo + Juliet (1996), and Band of Brothers (2001).

By the late 1590s and early 1600s, Shakespeare had made a strong name in England as a poet and dramatist. He attracted the attention of Queen Elizabeth I, performing before her on several occasions. Following the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I awarded Lord Chamberlain's Men a royal patent (BBC, 2017a), and the company subsequently changed its name to King's Men. It was during King James's reign that Shakespeare's sonnets were published, further building his reputation. Sonnets were quite popular during the Elizabethan era (Ellis, 2012), and today most of Shakespeare's sonnets are among the most widely recognised poems in English literature.

Shakespeare's Rise to Fame

Seven years after the death of Shakespeare, a collection of most of his works was published by his allies Henry Condell and John Heminge. The publication, commonly known as the First Folio, was a major boost to Shakespeare's posthumous popularity, as it accelerated the distribution of his work in England and beyond (Ellis, 2012). Many historians agree that without Condell and Heminge, most of Shakespeare's work would probably have disappeared (Fernandez, 2016; Marche, 2012). This is particularly true of works that had not been published during his lifetime, such as Macbeth, Julius Caesar, and The Tempest. The First Folio made it easier for Shakespeare's work to be read, disseminated, produced, and studied. Most of his rivals, such as Christopher Marlowe, did not receive such an opportunity — which perhaps explains why it was much easier for Shakespeare to rise to national bard status.

Shakespeare was undoubtedly an influential poet and dramatist, but his journey to national and global prominence was not straightforward. The circulation of his work suffered a major blow in 1642, when Puritans banned plays and theatres in England (Marche, 2012). Following the ban, performances depicting Shakespeare's work were no longer permitted in public, and the ban even led to the demolition of the Globe. However, the ban was lifted in 1660 during the Restoration of Charles II (BBC, 2017a), and Shakespeare's work returned to the public limelight after close to two decades of suppression. In the following century, his work spread far and wide, growing his eminence across England. Samuel Johnson, an 18th-century English writer, cited Shakespeare's work countless times in his 1755 English dictionary, specifically acknowledging the thousands of words and phrases Shakespeare had contributed to the English language (BBC, 2017a).

In 1769, actor David Garrick organised a jubilee to commemorate Shakespeare's life (BBC, 2017a). The jubilee added significant thrust to Shakespeare's fame. Garrick had become a star following his portrayal of Richard III and later devoted his career to promoting Shakespeare's work, which was especially instrumental to Shakespeare's rise to iconic status. Although the publication of Shakespeare's work in 1623 provided a crucial foundation for his fame, it was not until the 18th century that Shakespeare began earning the prominence he enjoys today (Fernandez, 2016).

Shakespeare's influence grew further during the 19th century. It was largely during this era that he became a symbol of national pride and that his fame spread beyond England (Marche, 2012). By this time, the British Empire was the strongest empire in the world, with colonies across the globe. Without the British Empire, it would have been considerably more difficult for Shakespeare's work to spread internationally. As the empire expanded, the English language spread with it, and the British government found Shakespeare's work a valuable tool for extending its imperial reach. His work was taught in schools throughout the British Empire, helping to build a sense of cultural patriotism across it (BBC, 2017a). Several centuries on, and even after the end of British colonial rule, Shakespeare's work continues to spread throughout the globe. The reconstruction of the Globe Theatre in 1997 further confirmed that his influence remains vigorous more than 400 years after his death — in 2014 alone, the new Globe sold over 365,000 tickets (BBC, 2017a).

Shakespeare's prominence was driven not only by his poems and plays, but also by his wealth. In 1598, Lord Chamberlain's Men built their own theatre, the Globe, making Shakespeare considerably wealthier (Marche, 2012). Shakespeare also held investments in real estate. Wealth meant that he had the resources to support the advancement of his career — an advantage other poets of his time likely lacked, making it more difficult for them to achieve comparable status.

In spite of his prominence, Shakespeare has been the subject of considerable criticism from the time he was alive. Fellow poets, biographers, and historians have repeatedly questioned his credibility. One of his earliest critics was Robert Greene, a poet who described Shakespeare as a writer whose credentials could not match those of Greene himself, Thomas Nashe, Christopher Marlowe, and other more formally educated writers of his era (Fernandez, 2016). In the 17th century, John Dryden described Shakespeare's work as rubbish (Marche, 2012), and questions have persisted over whether Shakespeare actually penned all the works attributed to him (Ellis, 2012).

Conclusion

Born in different eras, both William Shakespeare and Robert Burns are regarded as national bards in the UK. Both have unique histories, yet they enjoy virtually the same status. On one hand, Shakespeare's personal life remains a mystery, with his educational background largely a matter of speculation. Nonetheless, he is today described as the greatest poet and dramatist of all time. His work was particularly instrumental in building the English language and literature — he is the originator of many words and phrases used in everyday communication, and he helped standardise the English language. Burns, by contrast, evidently received formal education, albeit from a poor background. He lived a much shorter life than Shakespeare, but his contribution to Scottish literature is incomparable. He was especially influential in reviving the Scots language and propelling it back into literary circles. Today, the Scots dialect remains alive, thanks in large part to Burns.