Spatial Cognition: How People Perceive and Experience Space

Introduction to Spatial Cognition

People perceive and understand space differently depending on how it makes them feel, especially with regard to boundaries. Consequently, the definition of space varies across individuals because every space carries different meanings and feelings for every person. In some situations, individuals may feel comfortable and at peace in a particular space while others feel uncomfortable and irritated in the very same setting. Social status, for instance, can change the feelings people derive from a specific space. Based on this, it is clear that space affects people differently, contributing to varying interpretations, definitions, and understandings of space. Therefore, when addressing spatial cognition, it is important to examine the different ways space is perceived and the varying feelings associated with it.

People's Perception of Space

People's perceptions and understandings of space differ significantly based on how space affects them, particularly their feelings. The difference in interpretation, understanding, and definition of space is attributed to the fact that people can experience an environment in varying ways and from different perspectives (Pazzaglia & Meneghetti, 2010, p. 1). Generally, people experience space by moving around in it, studying a map, evaluating it from an aerial view, or listening to a description of a particular place. The process through which an individual experiences an environment in turn affects his or her spatial representation and spatial cognition.

Together with social cognition, spatial cognition is influenced by people's interactions with the environment and with team members (Khan & Lodhi, 2014, p. 744). The interaction between humans and the environment is a crucial component of spatial cognition because of the significance of the environment in human life. However, spatial cognition has received relatively little attention in the literature in relation to visualization, geographical location, navigation, and imagery of a location or place. These components continue to play a major role in spatial cognition, which incorporates a mental approach to knowing — including perception, conception, recognition, and reasoning. Throughout interactions between humans and their environments, people typically define space by developing their interpretations in particular ways (Swearingen, 2010, p. 27). In this process, definitions are often influenced by conflicts over how to use the specific space being defined.

Differing perceptions of space among individuals are also shaped by personal differences in wayfinding, which is an important element of spatial cognition and behavior. Some people are better than others at wayfinding, which explains differences in individual perception of space (Golledge, 1999, p. 46). People have different wayfinding capabilities because of the prevalence of goal-directed travel — a phenomenon that has attracted the attention of psychologists, researchers, and geographers who study it systematically. Individual differences in wayfinding and spatial behavior are influenced by several factors across varying systemic levels, and the reasons for these differences involve a mixture of qualified, partial, and conditional responses rather than a single, simple explanation.

The perception of space among individuals is also relative to visual overview, which varies with respect to proximity. Visual overview — particularly proximity — is influenced by boundaries, which can be physically continuous or discrete points commonly known as landmarks. Landmarks are sometimes regarded as continuous since they may encompass or impose a shape on space. Individuals' knowledge of boundaries and landmarks is not trivial and may involve goal-directed navigation (Dolins & Mitchell, 2010, p. 1). People respond to actual space using behavioral strategies that are dependent on their perceptions of it.

How Space Affects People

Given the individual differences in spatial cognition, space has varying impacts on people with regard to the feelings it generates. Some of the most common ways space affects people are described below.

One of the major impacts of space on people is that it generates different feelings because of individual differences in perception and cognition. Every space carries different meanings for different individuals, so some spaces that make one person feel comfortable and at peace may make another feel irritated and uncomfortable. For instance, exposure to social statues in a space is likely to change how individuals feel about it. According to findings from recent studies, being in a space where people are exposed to nature makes them feel more alive by generating feelings of increased vitality (Ryan et al., 2010, p. 159). Exposure to nature has traditionally been linked to increased energy, improved sense of vitality, and a better sense of well-being. However, these feelings tend to arise among people who already have a strong sense of vitality and find pleasure in outdoor experiences. People without such vitality may not experience nature and outdoor exposure as a source of improved well-being or heightened aliveness. Therefore, space affects people by generating different feelings based on the meanings they associate with a particular space and their individual interpretations.

Space also affects people by influencing psychological well-being and creative performance. This impact is attributed to the physical dialogue that takes place when a person interacts with a certain space. As a result of this interaction, every space has the capacity to shape personality, individuality, and behavior. Space therefore has considerable influence on the way people live, acting as either a source of empowerment or discouragement. Urban planners, business owners, and designers are increasingly recognizing that people are partly defined by their interactions with the spaces they occupy and inhabit (McAuliffe, 2014).

According to Takayama et al. (2014), interactions between people and the environment have a considerable impact on psychological outcomes (p. 7207). These interactions affect activity levels, which in turn influence psychological well-being and performance. These researchers reached this conclusion based on findings that natural environments are strongly associated with improved health outcomes, particularly given that stress has become a major public health concern in urban settings. Space therefore influences psychological well-being and creative performance either by generating stressors that contribute to poor health or by alleviating those stressors to produce positive health effects. Research on restorative environments supports this view, highlighting the role of natural settings in reducing stress and promoting recovery.

Because space affects individuality and creative performance, it also has significant effects on productivity. Interactions with space determine an individual's level of engagement and output. When a person feels connected to the space he or she occupies, enhanced productivity tends to follow, whereas a lack of such connection is associated with decreased performance. When individuals feel uncomfortable in their surrounding spaces, they tend to reduce their engagement in various activities, contributing to declining productivity. Discomfort can cause people to lose a sense of control, which is crucial to high performance. Conversely, when comfort with surrounding spaces is enhanced, individuals tend to regain a sense of control and well-being, which translates to increased engagement and output.

Space also influences social interactions through accessibility and the ability to navigate a particular location. The physical environment plays an important role in shaping how social interactions occur, especially by influencing people's interpretations of each other's intentions and desires. Space affects the quality and frequency of communication, given that communication involves both verbal and non-verbal cues. There is thus a strong link between the layout of space and the quality of social interactions. This occurs because interpersonal relations are largely shaped by the physical environment in which they take place (Skold, 2012).

Conclusion

Space, or physical environment, is an important aspect of human life with regard to health and well-being as well as social interactions. However, people perceive and understand spaces differently because of variations in mental capabilities for processing spatial information. Moreover, space has significant impacts on people — shaping feelings, psychological well-being, productivity, social interactions, and creative performance. These differences are rooted in the fact that spatial cognition is fundamentally a subjective process.

References

Dolins, FL & Mitchell, RW 2010, Spatial cognition, spatial perception: mapping the self and space, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Golledge, RG 1999, Wayfinding behavior: cognitive mapping and other spatial processes, JHU Press, Baltimore, MD.

Khan, MM & Lodhi, SA 2014, 'Spatial, social cognition and team performance', Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 744–762.

Koseoglu, E & Onder, DE 2011, 'Subjective and objective dimensions of spatial legibility', Procedia — Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 30, pp. 1191–1195.

McAuliffe, M 2014, Psychology of space: the smell and feel of your workplace, Triple Pundit, viewed 9 December 2015, <

Pazzaglia, F & Meneghetti, C 2010, 'Individual differences in spatial language and wayfinding: the role of cognition, emotion and motivation', Spatial Cognition, vol. 7, no. 6222, pp. 1–3.

Ryan, RM et al. 2010, 'Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in nature', Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 30, pp. 159–168.

Skold, O 2012, 'The effects of virtual space on learning: a literature review', First Monday, vol. 17, no. 1-2, viewed 9 December 2015, <http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3496/3133>.

Swearingen, WS 2010, Environmental city: people, place, politics, and the meaning of modern Austin, University of Texas Press, Austin, TX.

Takayama, N et al. 2014, 'Emotional, restorative and vitalizing effects of forest and urban environments at four sites in Japan', International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 11, pp. 7207–7230.