This paper examines academic engagement and the effects of token economy systems on students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Drawing on a review of multiple peer-reviewed studies, the paper defines academic engagement and identifies the enablers — such as interpersonal skills, peer relationships, self-monitoring, and teacher praise — that support it. The paper then surveys research on token economy interventions across school settings, documenting how reward-based systems, when used alone or in combination with other strategies such as mystery motivators and response cost programs, can reduce disruptive behavior and increase on-task performance. The discussion concludes by noting that many special education teachers remain underequipped to implement these evidence-based alternatives to medication and restraint.
For many years the educational system has sought ways to improve academic engagement among students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Many educators have resorted to the use of token economies to encourage these students to display appropriate behavior in the classroom. The purpose of this discussion is to explore academic engagement and the effects of a token economy on students with emotional and behavioral disorders. This literature review compares and contrasts various studies that have been conducted pertaining to this topic.
According to Greenwood et al. (2002), academic engagement is defined as a combination of classroom activities that include asking and answering questions, participation in tasks, writing, reading, and discussing academics. Several studies have suggested that successful academic engagement is dependent upon academic enablers. Academic enablers are "attitudes and behaviors that allow a student to participate in, and ultimately benefit from, academic instruction in the classroom" (Diperna et al., 2002).
Various enablers include interpersonal skills, stimulation, engagement, and study skills (Diperna et al., 2002). A study conducted by Bean et al. (1999) found that engagement in reading and writing improved overall academic engagement skills. Studies have also found that peer relationships impact academic engagement. Watkins and Wentzel (2002) found that peer acceptance motivates students to behave appropriately in academic settings. The authors found that in academic environments where peers were encouraging of academic success, students were more likely to experience successful academic engagement.
Greenwood et al. (2002) explain that behavior is a significant factor in determining the degree of academic engagement that can be achieved:
"If a student is unruly and disruptive, he or she will be unable to respond to academic opportunities or manage subject matter tasks rapidly and accurately. These actions may 'spillover,' preventing the learning of others, and may alter or interfere with a teacher's plans for teaching. If many students are engaged in this behavior, subject matter teaching and learning may be stopped altogether. Alternately, if students are well-behaved, watching and listening to the teacher, waiting to receive materials and instructions on what to do, their rate of progress in learning a subject matter will advance. When students are well-behaved, know what they need to study, and are able to access the needed materials independently to read, compute, and perform other academic tasks, progress in learning a subject matter will be accelerated." (Greenwood et al., 2002)
Gable et al. (2002) explain that integrating academic and non-academic instruction for students with emotional and behavioral disorders may improve academic engagement. Their article discusses the instructional variables that contribute to a positive classroom climate and that serve as setting events for more focused group and individual instructional programs. The authors also address the challenges that teachers face and conclude that many emotional and behavioral disorders can be minimized through the use of both academic and nonacademic instruction.
A study published in Education and Treatment of Children explains that academic engagement and behavioral cooperation are achieved when children with behavioral problems are given both positive and negative reinforcements (McComas et al., 2002). This claim is supported by various studies conducted over the preceding years. For instance, Lalli and Casey (1996) discovered decreases in sustained destructive behaviors when students were presented with negative and positive reinforcement. Likewise, Golonka et al. (2000) found that academic engagement increased when students with behavioral problems were presented with preferred activities (positive reinforcement) alongside negative reinforcement.
The authors of a study published in the Journal of Education and Treatment of Children reviewed the impact of self-monitoring of academic productivity, accuracy of academic performance, and on-task behavior in three male students with learning disabilities and attention deficit disorder (Shimabukuro et al., 1999). Several studies have shown that self-monitoring can decrease negative behavior and increase academic engagement. The article explains:
"Self-monitoring of academic performance is effective in increasing academic productivity (completion and/or rate of completion), accuracy, or use of strategies for students with learning disabilities, attentional difficulties, and behavioral disabilities. The effects of self-monitoring of academic performance on on-task behavior have also been investigated in several studies. The findings of these studies indicate that self-monitoring of academic performance is likely to result in improved on-task behavior for students with learning disabilities, attentional difficulties, and behavioral disorders." (Shimabukuro et al., 1999)
An additional study published in the Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders found that teacher praise could also have a significant impact on the academic engagement of children with emotional and behavioral disorders. The journal reports that poor academic performance is prevalent in students with EBD and that these disorders make teaching extremely challenging. The study concluded that there was a positive correlation between teacher praise and academic engagement in students with EBD (Sutherland et al., 2002).
A study published in School Psychology Review discusses the impact of a token economy on children with disruptive behavior and emotional disturbance. The article explains that a token economy alone can be effective in minimizing adverse behavioral and emotional actions in the classroom (Musser et al., 2001). However, the study suggests that token economies are even more effective when used in combination with other tactics such as mystery motivators and response cost programs — an approach the authors refer to as multi-component intervention.
A study published in the Journal of Education and Treatment of Children explains that token economies have a significant impact on students with behavioral disorders (Metzler et al., 2001). In this particular study, a middle school implemented an Effective Behavior Support program that encouraged school staff to instruct students on appropriate social behavior, increase positive reinforcement for positive behavior, and impose mild consequences for rule violations. The school used a token economy system to encourage appropriate behavior, presenting students with "tiger tickets" as rewards for positive behaviors. Students could redeem the tickets for prizes, typically in the form of snacks. This system proved effective in minimizing the behavioral problems that some students were displaying.
Fogt and Piripavel (2002) discuss the impact of a token economy at a school serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders. The authors explain that this school had previously relied on restraints and exclusion to manage students with EBD. The Centennial School, located in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, provides education for 76 students. The study sought to uncover alternative ways to change student behavior through three goals: (1) the creation of an engaging and stimulating curriculum; (2) the creation of a safe and civil learning environment; and (3) collaboration with parents in their child's education.
The Take Five Program incorporates a token economy as part of its reinforcement plan. Students are taught expected behaviors during the first few days of school through role-playing and skits and are reinforced by staff using Take Five Tickets. The tickets function like spending money and can be used to purchase items at the school store or entered into weekly and surprise raffles. The program differs slightly for elementary and middle school students compared to the secondary population. The slogan for elementary and middle school students is "Take Five, Take Control," while the slogan for secondary students is "Take Five, Keep the Power" (Fogt and Piripavel, 2002).
Another study published in the Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders reported positive outcomes resulting from a prevention program serving children with behavioral and emotional disturbance and children at risk for emotional disturbance in urban elementary schools (Kamps et al., 2000). This study utilized classroom management systems that included a token economy. Students earned tickets, points, and other positive reinforcements for appropriate and on-task behaviors. The results demonstrated that the token system, along with other positive reinforcements, aided in minimizing negative behaviors and increasing academic engagement.
"Specific school programs and ADHD functional analysis cases"
"Synthesis of findings and implications for practice"
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