High School Dropout Rates Among Students With Disabilities

Introduction and Background

The United States has had a well-documented struggle with dropout rates in public education. Tyler and Lofstrom (2009) reported that the U.S. high school dropout rate consistently fluctuates between 22% and 25%. The Editorial Projects in Education (EPE) Research Center (2010) estimated that approximately 1.3 million youths drop out of high school every year. Of these, many are considered to be students with disabilities. Feng and Sass (2010) reported that the likelihood that students with educational challenges — such as those in special education — will drop out of school is double that of their peers. Furthermore, Mellard (2005) noted that, even though it is easy to talk about dropout rates, it is much harder to keep track of them, and that tracking special education dropout rates is especially challenging, yet critical for communicating the significant dropout issues of youth with disabilities to Congressional and state lawmaking bodies, state and local commissioners, and the general community (Iosifides, 2011).

Therefore, the effort to address the challenges of high school dropouts should include examining the significant subpopulation of students with disabilities who opt to discontinue their high school education. This qualitative case study explores the lived experiences of individuals with disabilities who dropped out of a selected high school between 2009 and 2012 and examines the issues and policies that affect the dropout problem among youth with disabilities.

Background

In today's information age, financial stability and professional achievement are strongly correlated with educational attainment (Gratz, 2009). Obtaining a high school diploma significantly enhances a young person's capacity to earn a living wage and to assure economic security (Spring, 2008). Individuals who drop out of high school thus enter the job market at a disadvantage. As Levin (2009) noted, "High school graduation captures both the cognitive and the non-cognitive attributes that are important for success in adulthood, and it is usually a minimum requirement for engaging in further training and higher education" (p. 8). Higher education characteristically enhances opportunities for advancement in a chosen profession (Gratz, 2009). Today's world is widely considered a "knowledge-driven economy" where employability is measured by one's level of education and unique set of skills (Kennedy, 2010, p. 821). Education and specialized skills are acquired through attending high school and are further developed during postsecondary education.

Conversely, a student who does not graduate from high school encounters seemingly insurmountable obstacles in securing employment in an increasingly competitive market (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). The recent economic recession has further narrowed dropouts' job opportunities (Fogg, Harrington, & McMahon, 2010). Dropping out of high school is a strong predictor of serious negative consequences for both the individual and society.

These already formidable challenges are further exacerbated for the high school dropout with a disability. Individuals with disabilities typically feel alienated throughout their high school experiences (Edgerton, 2001). As they venture out into mainstream society, these problems carry over and are intensified by frequent dependence on welfare and health services and by difficulties in meeting the demands of society (Tymchuk, Lakin, & Luckasson, 2001).

Students with disabilities who require special accommodations in the workforce routinely face obstacles in securing employment even when they are well educated (Ford, 2007). When individuals with disabilities drop out of school, they may be inadequately prepared for the challenges of gaining and maintaining employment, and are thus at risk of becoming unproductive citizens (McNeal, 2011). Vilhjalmsdottir (2010, p. 678) reported that "dropping out of school is a move that can have dramatic consequences in a career." The added challenge of managing disability-related barriers in the workplace can compound these consequences significantly.

Dropout prevention is presented as an effective strategy for increasing literacy rates, expanding career opportunities, and decreasing unemployment rates among students with disabilities. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) both support the goal of decreasing dropout rates for the general population as well as for students with disabilities. The standard elements of dropout prevention programs include: raising standards and expectations while providing support to help at-risk students meet them; identifying early warning signs of dropping out and intervening effectively (Knight & Ruddock, 2008); improving classroom instruction; ensuring teacher and school accountability; improving teacher quality; including vocational training and counseling in the school curriculum; and increasing the participation of families, peers, and the community, particularly in supporting at-risk students (Martin & Fabes, 2008).

One important limitation of these efforts is that their success has been primarily measured through standardized assessments (Abedi, 2004), which have been widely criticized for failing to address the unique needs of students with disabilities. Boeije (2009) argued that students already struggling with achievement in schools can expect to find the stringent standards imposed by standardized testing unattainable; feeling hopeless, these students are likely to give up their educational pursuits at the earliest opportunity. It has also been argued that standardized testing and assessment negatively affect the motivation of some students and thus increase the dropout rate, because teachers are forced to teach to the tests within a narrow curriculum, compromising student engagement (Rumberger & Palardy, 2005).

The shift toward standardized testing has failed to result in a meaningful reduction of high school dropout rates, and students with disabilities continue to be marginalized by the culture of testing in public education (Dynarski et al., 2008). The needs of students with specific educational challenges are diverse and complex, and the solutions to their needs are not revealed in the results of standardized testing (Crawford & Tindall, 2006). Special education issues that demand more immediate attention include ensuring that special education teachers have appropriate textbooks, providing them with help to complete required paperwork relative to student assessments and intervention, and investigating why a disproportionate number of children of color end up in special education (Shorr, 2006, p. 1).

Ascertaining the characteristics that dropouts display and identifying the common reasons why students with disabilities drop out is vital to developing and applying effective dropout prevention strategies and programs. According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), students with disabilities are diverse and have different needs and goals (Gargiulo, 2011). These students differ from one another in ability, age, learning style, and personality; come from all cultural backgrounds and may speak languages other than English; have unique learning needs requiring specially designed instruction, adapted materials, speech-language therapy, or adaptive physical education; may have cognitive impairments ranging from mild to profound; may have learning disabilities requiring specific teaching strategies; may have physical disabilities requiring wheelchairs or other assistive devices; may have sensory impairments such as hearing or vision loss; might have emotional conditions; and may have their learning complicated by chronic health problems and multiple disabilities (Gargiulo, 2011).

Contrary to common myths, students with disabilities can succeed in school, and when provided with an adequate education, they grow mentally and socially (Gargiulo, 2011). Much variation exists within this population; however, particular disability classifications are more strongly linked to negative educational outcomes, as well as to a lack of confidence, self-consciousness, and difficulties in understanding language and instructions (Heckman & LaFontaine, 2010). In addition, students with disabilities are "more likely [to] become involved in major disciplinary incidents like suspensions and expulsions than are their peers in general education programs… [and] regularly attain significantly lower levels of academic performance than the average student" (Swanson, 2008, p. 1). These factors certainly contribute to dropping out and to the lifelong consequences that follow.

Situation to Self

I have always taken a particular interest in students with disabilities; my goal has been to help these students perform to their fullest potential and to ensure that they complete high school in order to reverse the dropout rate among special education students. This research study is therefore very important to me in my quest to assist my students. I believe that, if I can understand the experiences that culminate in the decision to drop out of high school, I can reduce those experiences as a teacher and, further, encourage administrative changes that could help special education students stay in school.

Problem Statement

The disabilities experienced by special education students place them at a disadvantage in pursuing financial stability and professional success (Ford, 2007). Special education students who graduate with disabilities will eventually require special accommodations in the workplace, and some may have cognitive disabilities that limit their career opportunities (Levinson & Palmer, 2005). Not completing high school inherently increases the challenges that these individuals face as they strive to become productive members of society and attain personal independence. To reduce dropout rates among students with disabilities, strategies beyond increased government spending on special education programs should be investigated. Understanding the experiences of students with disabilities is a starting point for developing such strategies.

It is important that predictive factors or indicators are recognized early in order to delay or even stop special education students from dropping out. Balfanz, Herzon, and MacIver (2006) asserted that four indicators predict a student's risk of dropping out of high school: (a) missing school more than 20% of the time, (b) earning a poor final behavior grade, (c) failing English, and (d) failing math. Directing additional interventions toward students with disabilities is often thought to drain resources that could potentially yield results elsewhere; Balfanz et al. (2007) contended that students with disabilities routinely receive extra interventions while other students who might benefit from additional interventions are not successfully identified. Until predictive factors can be better identified, the concern that targeting interventions at specific populations may or may not be effective will remain.

Interventions helping to ensure that students with disabilities graduate from high school should not be perceived as a financial drain but, rather, as an investment. Interventions for one group of students may simultaneously benefit other groups. Identifying common reasons why high school students with disabilities drop out can inform the successful application of various dropout prevention strategies and techniques that might eventually be generalized to other populations. While students may drop out for diverse reasons, common factors may exist that point to opportunities for change within the school so as to better support at-risk students. Thus far, the literature has focused too narrowly on identifying students at risk of becoming part of the dropout statistics among special education students and has rarely focused on early indicators and warning signs behind the high dropout rate of special education students. This research study attempts to fill that gap by gaining personal insight from the perspective of students with disabilities who decided to drop out of school.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore the lived experiences of individuals with disabilities who dropped out of a selected public high school in Virginia between 2009 and 2012, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of the special education program with students who are at high risk for dropping out of high school. Research studies typically focus on the common attributes and demographics of students with disabilities who dropped out, rather than on the experiences that led to and influenced their decision to drop out. In-depth interviews will be the primary data-gathering method, drawing on at least 15 participants who will be asked to share their experiences as they came to the decision to drop out of high school. The results of this study may contribute insight into the causes of attrition rates and suggest strategies that can address the problem.

Research Questions

This qualitative research study is guided by three research questions:

1. What are the common experiences of students with disabilities who drop out of school? This question is based on a gap in the existing literature resulting from researchers' tendencies to focus more on statistics and consequences rather than on a personal account of the students themselves. In the present study, I will seek insight into students' experiences that influenced their decisions to drop out of school near graduation.

2. What are students' perceptions of how the special education program was running at their school, and whether or not they believe it was effective?

3. What were the common factors contributing to the decisions of the study participants to drop out of school? I anticipate that examining the experiences of students with disabilities who dropped out of school will yield common factors that contributed to their decisions.

Delimitations and Limitations

Delimitations refer to those aspects of a research study that are within the control of the researcher (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012). Delimitations are intentional selections of boundaries for conducting the research and are informed by time, resources, location, and the scope of the study. The scope of this study is to identify the reasons why students with disabilities drop out of school at rates disproportionate to students in general education programs. The contributing factors may be related to a lack of interest in education, a lack of a sense of belonging in school, absenteeism because students view school as a hostile environment, and inappropriate curriculum because the school does not completely meet their special academic needs.

This study will require the collection of rich and detailed data, and the best method for collecting this kind of data is to work with a small sample size. In-depth interviews will allow students with disabilities to share their experiences and perceptions that contributed to their decisions to drop out of high school near graduation. Using a larger sample size would require too much time and resources to gather and analyze the data. Time and resources also contributed to the decision to delimit the study to one specific location (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010).

Limitations are factors that "expose the conditions that weaken the study" (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012, p. 114) and the "external conditions that restrict or constrain the study's scope or may affect its outcome" (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012, p. 103). One such factor is the breadth of the term "disability." The broad nature of the term may result in wide variations among reported factors that contributed to dropout, and this range of unique experiences and circumstances could limit the generalizability of the findings. The type and severity of students' disabilities are critical to the study, as they affect other outcomes. For instance, students with more severe disabilities may have a greater likelihood of high absenteeism, which positively correlates to the probability of dropping out (Lehr, Johnson, Bremer, Cosio, & Thompson, 2004, p. 12). Spencer (2009) conducted a study of attendance records of 42 eighth-grade students at an urban school and determined that students who were persistently absent eventually dropped out.

Based on the recommendation of Lehr et al. (2004), initial data will be gathered on each participant to learn more about that person's background. The data will include age, gender, socioeconomic background, ethnicity, native language, region, mobility, ability, parents' employment, school size and type, family structure, and type of disability. The legal definition of severe disability — a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities (34 CFR 350.5, as cited in U.S. Law, 2011) — will be applied in this study. Each student's disability will be classified by level of severity using this definition, and the classification will be validated by a professional school counselor. Federal legislation has identified 12 categories of disabilities applicable to students: autism, deafness, blindness, emotional disturbance, hearing impairment, mental retardation, multiple disabilities, orthopedic impairments, other health impairments, recognized learning disabilities, speech/language impairments, brain trauma, and visual difficulties (Siegel, 2011; Wasburn, 2005).

The transcription and coding of journaling, interviews, and field notes from observations provide ways of identifying issues that need to be addressed. Identifying issues depends on what the participants are willing to share, and thus the openness of subjects is another potential limiting factor. For instance, stressful life events are very personal; if a participant elects not to disclose painful experiences, those experiences will not be available for analysis. Access to school counseling records might therefore prove essential to this study. Although counseling records are confidential, the school administration will permit access with proper consent according to the rules and regulations of the school system. All data will be carefully guarded to ensure that no violations of confidentiality occur.

Characteristics and factors commonly associated with dropping out include grades, disruptive behavior, absenteeism, school policies, school climate, parenting, sense of belonging, attitudes toward school, educational support in the home, grade retention, and stressful life events (Lehr et al., 2004, pp. 12–13). Some variables are easy to identify, while some may need careful observation and access to private information. For instance, personal problems disclosed in confidential environments, such as juvenile delinquency, will probably have an impact on the decision to drop out but may not be voluntarily disclosed.