Breast Cancer Essays (Examples)

Breast Cancer Is a Type of Cancer

Breast cancer is a type of cancer that originates from tissues in the breasts commonly from within the inner lining of milk ducts or alternatively lobules which supply milk to the ducts. Breast cancer can occur in both humans and other mammals but .The majority cases in humans occur in women, however breast cancer also occurs in men but in very rare instances. Those few cases of breast cancer in men occur to men in the ages between 60 and 70.from statistics white women are seen to be at a higher risk of the development of malignant breast cancer as compared to Hispanics or Asians. Breast cancer comes second when it comes to cause of deaths due to cancer in women aged between 45-50.there is an increase in the number of women who are diagnosed with cancer each year. If cancer is detected early enough than the chances of survival rate is increased. Annual breast cancer screening and preventive steps at early stages can be of great assistance when it comes to the monitoring of early stages.

Cancer can be broadly categorized into two, invasive and non-invasive. Under these two broad categories there are three different types of breast cancer…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Treatments

Breast Cancer Treatments

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer related deaths in females and its rising incidence makes it the second most common cause of deaths due to cancer in both genders. Its incidence increases with the following risk factors, age and first degree relatives affected with the illness. However, only five to ten percent of all breast cancers are hereditary. The BRCA1, BRCA 2 and the p 53 genes have proven to be the involved mutations. Other risk factors include prior breast cancer, a lengthy reproductive life, null parity, obesity, exogenous estrogen intake and an already existing proliferative fibrocystic change, especially atypical hyperplasia. (Abbas et.al, 739-750)

Treatment affectivity depends on several factors. The type of tumor determines its aggressiveness. A well defined tumor that is small in size, belonging to a less invasive variant, with estrogen and progesterone receptor sensitivity, generally responds well to treatment. However, the reverse is true for tumors that are aggressive in nature, poorly defined with involvement the axillary lymph nodes, an over expression of c-erbB2 (HER2/neu) and show S. phase and DNA ploidy have poorer prognosis. (Abbas et.al, 739-750)

Modern technology and research have brought forward several treatment modalities, with proved…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Although it Remains True That

Breast Cancer

Although it remains true that many Americans will die of acute illnesses, injuries, and accidents, it is at the same time becoming the case that more and more Americans are dying of chronic diseases such as cancer. In fact, cancer is expected in the future to be the leading cause of death in the United States, and any integrated plan for providing quality medical (including) nursing services in the future must focus on the treatment of such long-term illnesses.

Among the most common forms of cancers, breast cancer cases are increasing the most quickly (Ku 2001), with the overall lifetime risk for American women having grown to one in eight (American Cancer Society, 2001). The reason for this increase is not understood, although a number of factors are known to come into play, and it may be possible that the increased risk is a combination of these various known factors, which include increased overall environmental exposure to known cancer-causing agents as well as delays in first pregnancies and less time spent breastfeeding infants.

It is also possible that the rise in reported incidents of breast cancer may in fact be to some extent an artifact, that it may…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Research & Awareness

Rosenberg (ScienceDaily, 20010) suggests that oral contraceptives have evolved over a great many years and thus it is relevant to discuss once again the effects of oral contraceptives on women and their likelihood of getting breast cancer.

Marchbanks et al. (2010) did conclude that either present or earlier use of oral contraceptives among women ages 35 to 64 did not increase their chances of getting breast cancer. Their research was adamant about the results, which said that oral contraceptive use does not increase the risk of breast cancer later on in life, when the chances of a women getting breast cancer is higher than when they were younger.

What also needs to be considered is that the biology of white and black women may be significantly different and thus their bodies react differently to oral contraceptives. Because of this reason (as well as numerous others) and the fact that we cannot trust that white women and black women use oral contraceptives in a different manner, more in depth studies need to be done in order to find consistent evidence that the effect of oral contraceptives on the risk of breast cancer differs between white women and black women (Marchbanks et…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Treatment and Screening

" (O'Malley, 190) The basic argument is that there is a certainty of a relationship between low-income and diminished health standards and treatment opportunities. Thus, the close association between low-income and the African-American race has a direct bearing on the severe disparity in racial vulnerability to breast cancer.

As stated, this is also often because those in races tending toward lower income will often not receive proper screening and, if even possible, will be forced to undergo a treatment with its own health risks. Upon diagnosis, primary treatment is centered on chemotherapy, which uses traditional radiation methods to attack the cancer cells leached to one's system. Additionally, where tumors are present in the breast, a surgical procedure called a mastectomy will be performed. The mastectomy is generally considered the first choice in attacking a tumor in the breast and is effective in cases where detection occurs early enough. It is a regularly performed surgery which is considered largely reliable. Technically, the surgery consists of "the removal of all of the breast tissue. Mastectomy is more refined and less intrusive than it used to be because in most cases, the muscles under the breast are no longer removed." (BCO, 1)

In…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Outline

Breast Cancer

Education as the key to awareness

Cancer awareness information needs to be available to the general public

Teaching children about breast cancer awareness

Taking the matter to the streets -- encouraging volunteers to interact with individuals in their neighborhoods with the purpose of informing them concerning the gravity of the situation

Devising ways of providing proper educating the masses

Academics are often available for such campaigns and can easily join one if they are provided with the chance to do so

People tend to trust scholars more

You are important!

Learning to take rapid action

Know the difference between normal and abnormal

Doctors are your friends!

Prevent serious problems

Become accustomed to getting tested

Acknowledge the fact that you are the most important person who can help you

Care for your loved ones

a. Age is a primary factor associated with breast cancer

Encourage people close to you to visit doctors on a regular basis

2. Focus on helping your parents detect problems in incipient phases

b. Raise awareness for people in general

1. Don't ignore signs of breast cancer because you feel you're not close to individuals displaying them

2. Fighting breast cancer occurs one step at…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Treatment Breast Cancer Is Not

Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer is not an illness which can be cured with medication, it is a fatal disease. If not detected at an early stage it is incurable. A famous Chinese proverb states "We cannot control the wind, but we have the power to adjust its sails"; in the same manner, we cannot prevent breast cancer, but it is in our power to take appropriate measures to reduce its fatality. Annual mammography screening is one of the ways to detect this disease at an early stage. Doctors recommend women to get it done at least once in a year. Despite all this, African-American women do not give much attention to this. Cancer screening, spreading awareness about its side effects and health related issues are concepts alien to these women. Such an attitude constitutes a major obstacle in the way of dealing with this disease. This article attempts to identify the liaison between social, psychological and cultural factors affecting women's ability to accept the bitter truth of life. This study takes into account even the tiniest details of this syndrome, starting with its side effects to making it curable in some way. This topic has proved to be quite…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Immunization

Breast Cancer Immunization

The need for increased breast cancer screening: New Zealand

The incidence of breast cancer in New Zealand is comparable to that of the rest of the developed world. After skin cancer, it is the most commonly-diagnosed and most common cause of death of women from cancer (Cunningham, Shaw & Sarfati 2010:2). In general, white, highly-educated women have a higher instance of breast cancer, and cancer risk increases with age. "Older age at first birth, lower parity, lack of breast feeding, younger age at menarche, older age at menopause and use of menopausal hormone therapy (HT) are all related to increases in breast cancer risk" (Cunningham, Shaw & Sarfati 2010:2).

The need for early detection is widely acknowledged, but screening programs have come under increased scrutiny because of their high rates of false positives. A recent study found that while "43 deaths from breast cancer prevented for every 10-000 women invited for screening. The downside was an estimated 19% rate of over-diagnosis: 129 of the 681 cancers detected in those 10, 000 women would not have caused symptoms or death during the patient's lifetime" thus subjecting women to needless surgery and psychological stress (Godlee 2013). However, reduced screening…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer

women living in Western society will develop breast cancer during her lifetime. Germline mutations in BRCA1, a breast cancer tumor suppressor gene, are responsible for 50% of inherited breast cancers and 90% of combined inherited breast and ovarian cancers. The BRCA1 protein, BRCA1p, is involved in many important cellular pathways, including regulation of the cell cycle, DNA repair, transcription, and cell proliferation. It has been shown to bind over 20 different proteins. One such protein is

the retinoblastoma protein, Rbp. Rbp is the product of another tumor suppressor gene, termed Rb. Like

BRCA1p, Rbp is known to be involved in regulation of the cell cycle and cell proliferation.

Regulation of cell proliferation and maintenance of genome stability are major functions of many tumor suppressors, including BRCA1p and Rbp. Rbp expression is known to decrease cell proliferation in a wide array of cells and tissues, consistent with its ubiquitous expression in mammalian cells and tissues. Loss of Rb results in rapid tumor formation and progression in mice, suggesting a direct role in tumorigenesis.

Unlike Rbp, BRCA1p's inhibition of proliferation is specific to breast and ovarian tissues, despite its ubiquitous expression pattern. Conditional BRCA1 mutations lead to mammary epithelial tumors after a…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer

Preventing and Reducing the Risk of Pre-Menopausal Breast Cancer: A Proposal for Youth Education

The incidence of pre-menopausal breast cancer is on the rise. In recent years many different factors have been identified that contribute to this increased risk. Among the more common include an earlier onset of menses, obesity or overweight in youth which pre-dispositions a person to breast cancer, use of hormonal replacement therapy and long-term use of oral contraceptives (Claudio, 2000; Emanoil, 2000). Many studies have suggested that women are not taking adequate steps to assure early detection of breast cancer (Emanoil, 2000).

The aim of this proposal is to develop a workshop geared toward educating young adults about the risk factors associated with pre-menopausal breast cancer and educate the community about the importance of early detection. The author hypothesizes that by addressing and educating youths, the incidence of breast cancer and deaths associated with breast cancer may decrease over time.

Background to Problem

Breast cancer has been identified as the second leading cause of death in American women today (Claudio, 2004). In fact, breast cancer will claim the lives of more than 40,000 women annually, and statistics suggest that more and more women are being diagnosed…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer

tragedy that, at such a young age, a woman such as Igna has to deal with the pain and emotional stress of breast cancer. It is important to explore whether early detection through genetic testing and counselling could have prevented the disease, or if these pre-emptive measures would be beneficial for her two young daughters.

Research into genetic factors involved in the occurrence of breast cancer have yielded some interesting and crucial findings. Studies have shown that mutations within certain genes have been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer. The effects of genetic mutations on the risk of breast cancer have been observed to be a function of a woman's age, with the greatest ratio of age-specific risks found at young ages (TransMed Network, 1997). Specifically, two major genes linked to breast cancer susceptibility are located on chromosomes 17q and 13q, and their corresponding names are BRCA1 and BRCA2. Mutations within these genes were found in families with four or more cases of breast cancer and at least on family member diagnosed at an early age (TransMed, 1997).

Another study revealed that the average cumulative risk of breast cancer in BRCA1-mutation carriers by age 70 was 65%, and…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer

Poster:

Following are copies of the articles consulted to create the poster. All were retrieved 25 October 2004 from www.highbeam.com. The APA reference information has been placed at the head of each article, rather than the text as it appeared on the Web site as headlines and bylines.

All spot art was obtained from a Microsoft Word program, Office 2000. The pictures are free clip art, not copyrighted.

Exercise and Breast-Cancer Prevention: Study Finds It's Never Too Late to Start, Activity Need Not Be Strenuous. (2003) Ascribe Higher Education News Service, September 9, 2003. Retrieved 25 October 2004 from www.highbeam.com.

SEATTLE, Sept. 9 (AScribe Newswire) -- Increased physical activity, even when begun later in life, reduces overall breast-cancer risk by 20% among women at all levels of risk for the disease, according to a study led by researchers at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center. Their findings appear in the Sept. 10 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association.

What's more, the activity need not be strenuous but it should be done consistently, such as taking a brisk, 30-minute walk five days a week, said lead investigator Anne McTiernan, M.D., Ph.D., a member of Fred Hutchinson's Public Health Sciences…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Screening What Differences

This kind of mammogram is called a selective or screening mammogram. This process is chosen according to the distinctiveness and preferences of women to find breast cancer when there are no obvious symptoms. Generally, a mammogram necessitates two radiographs or images of each breast. These images make it likely to identify possible tumors which cannot be felt through the skin or to find micro-calcifications that occasionally are a sign of the presence of breast cancer (What is a Mammogram, 2010).

Mammograms can also be utilized to find breast cancer after having discovered a lump or other indication or symptom of the cancerous tumor. This kind of mammogram is called a diagnostic mammogram. Some indications of breast cancer are pain, skin thickening, nipple discharge or a change in breast size or shape. Nevertheless, these indications can also be a sign of a benign abnormal cellular growth. A diagnostic mammogram may also be utilized to assess alterations found during a screening mammogram or to look at breast tissue when it is hard to get a screening mammogram because of particular conditions, for instance, the existence of breast implants (What is a Mammogram, 2010).

The age at which to start mammography for screening…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Has Been Controlled Across Many

Breast cancer has been controlled across many different variables, but it has rarely been researched specifically across socioeconomic status. The main focus is whether there is a higher incidence of breast cancer among people who are socioeconomically disadvantaged. Studies have shown that this group does have less access to health care (CDC, 2005), and even when people in this situation do have access they are less likely to actually utilize those services. Women are much less likely to get a breast cancer screening (mammogram) if they are economically disadvantaged. Thus, it is actually more difficult to conduct studies regarding this population. However, there is evidence to suggest, among the women from this classification, that there is actually a lower incidence of breast cancer than in women who are economically more affluent.

There have been very few studies that have looked at the socioeconomically disadvantaged population and breast cancer, but some evidence, as to this population, has been collected. Women with low incomes were less likely to get breast cancer exams, and women who had a high school education or less were also much less likely to receive the examinations. However, one study conducted in Canada with more than 200,000 women…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer the Amount of

It would be impossible for this review to be inclusive of the vast body of work that is available on the subject of breast cancer. It is useful, however, in helping medical personnel determine if the particular study cited in this work is one that might prove useful to the medical practitioner's current problem, patient, or other focus in his or her work and continuing education.

A journal article appearing in Family Planning Perspectives, by D. Hollander (2002), studies the risk factor for breast cancer for women who breast feed, versus those who do not breast feed. The article is brief, targeting the mother-to-be, or the new mother. The article does not give D. Hollander's credentials for writing this article, but the writer's credentials probably are along the lines of journalism, if a degree at all, because the article cites professional studies in a very limited way, using a simplistic layperson language. The article relies on a single source.

Breast Cancer and Ovarian Cancer, by Dr. M. Margaret Kemeny, Paula Dranov, and Mona Mark (1992) is a study on breast cancer that covers all aspects of the disease, including risk and the relationship of risk to nutrition and poverty. Much…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Detection Rural Women

In this particular instance the place to start would be to launch an education program aimed at both patients and providers as to the importance of early detection screening for breast cancer. The goal would be to implement outreach strategies to improve access to screening for women who have rarely or never been screened. A second thing that would need to be done would be that of developing a transportation and child care program that could be utilized by these women in order to help them to seek services. The hope would be that by raising awareness about the importance of early detection and providing access to screening services that a larger percentage of rural women would obtain screening procedures.

Another barrier that would need to be addressed would be that of insurance availability. For those women who have access to insurance the reason for not seeking screening may be one of the aforementioned reasons of lack of transportation and child care, but for some women their reasons include either no insurance or insurance that still leaves them with a high out of pocket cost. For this group there would need to be put into place some sort of reduced…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Diagnosis Among African American as Well as Caucasian Women

breast Cancer diagnosis among African-American and Caucasian women?

Breast cancer in the United States is the most widely spread cancer in ladies aged 45 through 64. The American Cancer Society in 2014 stated that, around 232,670 ladies were determined to have breast cancer, and nearly 40,000 of them died because of it. It has been affirmed that race plays a part in breast cancer survival and incidence. While White women will probably get breast cancer, African-American women will most probably die from it as compared to any other group (ACS, 2014). The five-year survival rate for breast cancer is 90% among White women and 79% for African-Americans (ACS, 2014). The expenses of breast cancer treatment are non-paltry and in this way its difference by race should be investigated. Over a five-year treatment plan, the societal expense of metastatic breast cancer is $98,571 or $12.2 billion per person annually (Means, Rice, Dapermont, Davis, and Martin, 2016).

Breast cancer mortality difference is the highest in Tennessee and Memphis as compared to twenty-five urban areas of America in which an African-American woman is 2.09 times more inclined to die from breast cancer than a White woman (Whitman, Orsi & Hurlbert, 2012). The national…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Into the Google

The site urges people to stay away from being "cut" (having surgery) or "poisoned" (receiving chemotherapy). Instead, it takes readers on a nine-stage process to cleanse body and soul. Some of the steps include "Cleanup and detoxification," "cancer recovery diet," "psychotherapy," "support group," and "meditation/visualization." Although I thought the prognosis this site offered was a bit cocky, as was the advice to avoid all traditional medications, many of the therapies suggested are no different than those a doctor or nurse in traditional care would prescribe. After all, who would object to his or her patient praying or meditating? Or joining a support group? Or eating a better diet for that matter?

The next site I came upon, though, did strike me as invalid. The page is entitled simply, "Focus on Health," but the subheading reads: "Cancer Cures: Natural, Safe, Effective & Scientifically Proven Results -- Cure for Cancer!" The "cures" turn out to be Cessiac and Yuccalive, two Canadian herbal formulas, allegedly first used by the Native Americans and scientifically proven to work in many studies conducted under the Ministry of Health in China. There are even links to these supposed studies, which have myriad problems (lack of random selection,…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Survivors in This

The subjects for the study were referred by local oncologists and to protect their rights they were provided with informed consent before participating. In other words, what would be studied and why was explained to them and they could then decide whether they wanted to participate or decline. There was no requirement to participate and patients could stop any time that they felt uncomfortable.

It is vital that individuals who are participating in something like this are made to feel comfortable and that they are clear on the fact that they are capable of choosing to discontinue participation. It is very difficult to get honest and complete answers from people who feel as though they have been coerced into something. It is a much better choice when people are participating of their own free will and when they feel as though they are gaining something and helping others in the process.

Method and Analysis

The study used a quantitative research design that addressed statistical information collected on the participants at the beginning of the study and at the completion of it. The dependent variable was the cancer treatment, and the independent variables were the types of treatment that the patients…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Causal Factors

Cancer risk factors associated with insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 levels in healthy women" (Barnes et al., 2009). The method for determining causality in this study was the statistical program R. In this, a variety of statistical tests were run on the data, including t-test, Chi-Squared, Fisher's exact test, and Pearson correlations. The study also sought to control for other factors. This is necessary because there are many different potential factors that can influence the development of disease. The control and study groups, and the statistical tests used, need to isolate the independent variable in order to demonstrate that it is a causal factor. This statistical work owes a lot of its underpinnings to Bradford Hill, but also the web of causation. The web of causation reflects that disease is related to many different factors. The factors may in turn influence each other. "All predisposing factors of any type and their complex relations with each other and with the disease" (Friedman, 1974) are taken into account in the web. Statistical analysis runs counter to the web, in that it seeks to isolate a single independent variable, which necessitates finding statistical means of removing the influence of the other factors. Yet, there…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer

Project Title: Women who chose Lumpectomy Over Prophylactic Mastectomy as Treatment for Early Stage Breast Cancer May have an Increased Risk for Post-Treatment Anxiety Regarding Fear of Recurrence.

This proposed research plan will address the post treatment psychology of Stage I breast cancer patients who have received the less invasive breast retention surgery, referred to as lumpectomy.

Do women with early stage breast cancer have more intrusive thoughts (stress) regarding recurrence after lumpectomy than after prophylactic mastectomy? Within the survivor group the study will specifically address issues of psychological anxiety related to recurrence of cancer. The study will be retrospective, based upon cognitive memories of post treatment anxiety related to recurrence of breast cancer and subjects will be chosen in a non-random fashion. The main research query will be: Do women who choose prophylactic mastectomy after early stage breast cancer return to their pre-diagnostic sense of wellness as compared to women who choose lumpectomy? The basic decision associated with breast cancer treatment has often centered around post treatment body image associated with radical mastectomy, leaning treatment decision in the way of breast retention surgery, and away from the more traditional prophylactic mastectomy. (Rowland, Desmond, Meyerowitz, Belin, Wyat, Ganz.…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Is a Disease

Partial Mastectomy- a procedure that remove part of the breast that contains the cancer and some tissue around the affected tissue. This type of surgery is also called a segmental mastectomy (Breast Cancer Treatment).

In addition the National Cancer Institute reports that patients who undergo the aforementioned types of surgeries may also have some lymph nodes removed (Breast Cancer Treatment).

Another type of surgery that does not conserve the breast is the total mastectomy. During this type of surgery the entire cancerous breast is removed (Breast Cancer Treatment). This type of surgery is also referred to as a simple mastectomy. As an aspect of this surgery lymph nodes, the lining of the chest muscles and the chest wall muscles may also be removed (Breast Cancer Treatment). A patient may also undergo a radical mastectomy which involves the removal of the cancerous breast along with the muscles underneath the breast and lymph nodes (Breast Cancer Treatment).

After the surgery is completed many patients undergo chemotherapy or radiation or both. Chemotherapy involves the use of drugs to prevent the development of cancer cells. The drugs work by preventing the division of the cancer cells or killing the cells altogether (Breast Cancer Treatment).…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Detection Methods

Epidemiology

The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality has issued its recommendations for breast cancer screening. In this article, they make a few different recommendations. First, they recommend screening for women 50-74 years. They note that women under 50 should make the choice for themselves as to whether or not they wish to begin screening. They note that there is little evidence to support screening age 75 onward. This body, however, recommends against teaching breast self-examination.

Also noted is that "the current evidence is insufficient to assess the additional benefits and harms of clinical breast examination beyond mammography. They also find that there is insufficient evidence of incremental benefits for the use of digital mammography or MRI. The lack of evidence does not mean that these things are ineffective or do not provide value, just that there is no evidence that they do, which is different.

The most controversial aspect of this recommendation is the recommendation against teaching self-examination. They italicize "teaching" as if to back away from saying that they are arguing against self-examination itself, which is a wishy-washy position. They should either be for or against breast self-examination. This is not a body that strictly represents health care…… [Read More]

Breast Cancer Searching for the Mean Genes

cancer genes that are associated with breast cancer. Scientists have known for years that the most common breast cancer genes are BRCA1 AND BRCA2, but there are many more than those two genes that scientists now much cope with. Another aspect of the focus is on whether or not to tell a woman that she has genes that might lead to breast cancer; the ethical questions are serious and this is complicated by the fact that ovarian cancer and breast cancer "share genetic risk factors."

The overall problem is breast cancer, but within the problem of breast cancer is determining which genes are likely to cause tumors and which are present but do not necessarily lead to breast cancer. The identification of BRCA1 and BRCA2 was thought to hold the keys to identifying those women who had those genes as possible breast cancer victims. But with the "rapid expansion of next-generation DNA sequencing," scientists have learned that there are perhaps "dozens" of additional genes that could be linked to breast cancer (Kean, 2014, p. 1457). What is being investigated is why certain genes "shut down" and why the DNA can't repair a double strand break. Also being investigated is why…… [Read More]

Preventative Services and Drug Treatment for Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer

ETIOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF BREAST CANCER

Breast cancer is the type of cancer that has been chosen for the assignment. Breast cancer is a cancer type that attacks the tissues in the breast of women. This cancer characterized by the presence of a lump inside the breast tissues, notable changes in the shape of the breast, the formation of dimples in the skin surrounding the breast, among others. The breast is made up of some tissues called lobules. These tissues play a significant role in milk production together with other tubes called ducts carrying milk from the lobules to the nipples. The common type of cancer that attacks the tissues is ductal cancer. Ductal cancer attacks the cells of the ducts and spreads throughout the other parts of the breast (Winchester, 2006).

Available Preventive Services

Breast cancer can be prevented through some weights. These factors include maintenance of the body weight, not using alcohol of using very limited amounts, physical activity, breastfeeding the children, among others. These modifications have the capacity to reduce breast occurrence by up to 38% in the United States of America alone. Regular exercises reduce the chances of attracting obesity, which perpetuates cancer occurrence.…… [Read More]

Women's Issues Breast Cancer Awareness

Screening for breast cancer before there are symptoms is very important. Screening helps doctors find and treat cancer in its early stages. Treatment is more likely to be successful when the cancer is detected early. A doctor may suggest any of the following screening tests for breast cancer: screening mammogram, clinical breast exam, beast self-exam (Stoppler, 2009).

Mammograms can often show a breast lump before it can even be felt. A mammogram is a picture of the breast that is made with an x-ray. It can also show a cluster of tiny deposits of calcium. These deposits are known as micro calcifications. Lumps can be from cancer, precancerous cells, or a host of other conditions. Further tests may be needed to find out if abnormal cells are present. Women in their 40s and older should have mammograms every 1 to 2 years (Stoppler, 2009).

During a clinical breast exam the health care provider will check the breasts. They will be looking for differences in size or shape between the breasts. The skin of the breasts will be checked for rashes, dimpling, or other abnormal signs. The nipples may be squeezed to check for fluid discharge. Using the pads of the…… [Read More]

New Breast Cancer Screening Guidelines

Dr. Robb-Nicholson's data best supports the scenario that more incidents of breast cancer will be discovered due to the reduced number of screenings that the new guidelines suggest. According to the numbers she gives, the mortality rate for breast cancer decreases every year and this decrease can be attributed to the previous screening guidelines. She writes that the USPSTF has based the new guidelines on statistics rather than clinical data and the message that they are conveying to the public is that the number of deaths that regular screenings at beginning at the age of forty is too small to keep the guidelines as they were previously. (6)

The best approach would be to keep the guidelines the way they were before the change. There was not enough clinical data to support the change in guidelines. Also, because the mortality rate for breast cancer has steadily declined with women following the previous guidelines, there is no rational behind the change. If there are changes to be made to the guidelines, they should be based on clinical data and not just statistics alone. The statistics do not give us a true and clear picture of the mortality rates of breast cancer.…… [Read More]

Genetic Pathway of Breast Cancer

, 2006). He visualized and described the malignancy process. He suggested that early that "cells of tumors with unlimited growth" would develop with the elimination of chromosomes, which inhibit the growth. The multiple genetic alterations in these inhibiting chromosomes are today known as TSGs. The theory supposes that cancer arises from functional defect or absence of one or more TSGs. Clinical trials of TSG gene replacement therapy for breast cancer include the viral wild-type p53, Rb, and mda7. Molecular chemotherapy involves the introduction of suicide genes. The concept evolved from the assumption that cancer cells could be made more sensitive to chemotherapeutics or toxins by introducing "suicide genes." It was a concept initiated in the late 80s. Suicide gene therapy is categorized into toxin gene therapy and enzyme-activating pro-drug therapy. Suicide gene therapy is also called gene-directed enzyme pro-drug therapy or GDEPT. GDEPT treatment consists of the delivery of the gene for the enzyme to the breast cancer cell and the infusion of a non-toxic pro-drug. The enzymes are categorized into foreign enzymes from non-mammals and from human sources. Proapoptotic complimentary gene therapy introduces genes, which cause apoptotic cell death and transit death signals to adjacent tumor cells as the…… [Read More]

Overcoming Breast Cancer the Definition of Courage

True Courage; Facing Breast Cancer

When we think of courage it is easy to look at heroes that are portrayed in the media; individuals who may be seen as an inspiration because they have faced difficult situations, often where there is a significant amount of danger, putting the needs of others before their own safety. There is little doubt that this is courage, but it is only one form of courage. If courage is defined as facing fears and have the resolution to overcoming difficulties there are many types of courage that may go unnoticed as they do not attack headline news or gossip. It can take courage to stand up to bullies, especially if they are larger or more powerful than yourself, to stand up for what you believe in even if others disagree and to overcome a phobia. These all require courage, as they involve facing a fear and moving forward despite being afraid. When I think of courage one person in particular comes to mind; my parsons wife Mrs. Johnson, she has faced and overcome fears, with her courage manifesting not only in her own actions in facing and overcoming fears, but the way in which she…… [Read More]

Nurses Perceptions About Breast Cancer

The authors point out that nurses have the ability to influence patient expectations of care if they are educated properly. However the article also suggests that more attention needs to be paid to educating nurses regarding the psychological impact a diagnosis with breast cancer may have. These findings apply to any situation where a nurse is caring for patients with potentially life threatening illness. The article also suggests that further research should be conducted to determine the extent to which nurse's perceptions of patient outcome may impact a patient's psychological state and ability to remain optimistic throughout therapy.

The article can be used as the impetus necessary to incorporate more psychosocial coursework in nursing education.

Reference:

Powe, B.D., Underwood, S., Canales, M. & Finnie, R. (2005, Jun). "Perceptions about breast cancer among college students: implications for nursing education." Journal Nursing Education, 44(6):…… [Read More]

Cancer the Medical Name for Cancer Is

Cancer

The medical name for cancer is malignant neoplasm. There are approximately forty different types of cancers, including a few varieties of leukemia and lymphoma. Cancer is a disease that has increased in frequencies in countries such as the United States of America during the latter part of the 20th century and into the 21st. In fact, according to statistics gathered by leading clinics in the U.S.A., cancer is the second leading cause of death in the U.S.A. This paper will describe some approaches to cancer treatment. Cancer treatment certainly includes treatments to fight the disease, but there are also treatments that support the person carrying the disease, as well as anyone who is close to the cancer patients and functions as part of the patient's support system in some way. The paper will offer some tips toward prevention of cancer, diagnosis of cancer, and describe the different stages of cancer. Cancer treatment is not a straight forward process and there are risks as well as complications. As with any disease and treatment, there are side effects, which are another aspect of the disease that should be treated and supported. Therefore, the paper will attempt to describe both the physical…… [Read More]

Cancer Drug Development Economic Issues Special Health

Cancer Drug Development

Economic issues

Special health needs

Process (decision, steps) involved in program

Benefits of program

Cancer is amongst fatal diseases that involve abnormal growth of body cells resulting is unusual growth and division of cells. The result is tumor formation effecting one particular or many parts of the body. Since there is high probability of cancer cells invading the neighboring tissues of body parts, early detection and careful treatment of cancer is deemed absolutely necessary. The treatment is not only costly but involves multi-stage radiation treatments (Castro, 2001). More than 13% of human deaths world over are caused by cancer related diseases. Since the treatment of cancer diseases is costly throughout the world, new drug development also involves multi-million R&D on cancer drugs. Series of rigorous tests are conducted in laboratories before cancer drugs are approved for being administered to patients. Drug development process involves preclinical and translational work. This white paper is aimed at presenting major issues in cancer drugs including economic issues, special needs of specific population being served, process and steps involved in program, and benefits of drug treatment program. Visuals will also be added in this paper to help brief the potential patients regarding…… [Read More]

Cancer Cells Have Been Proven

These behaviors need to be taken more seriously in order to prevent further deaths.

3. Several different cancers affect women and men separately. The cancer most prevalent in women is breast cancer, which kills over 40,000 women in America each year, (National Cancer Institute, 2008). Breast cancer is followed by lung cancer and colorectal cancer, (Medicinenet.com, 2008). Men are most afflicted by prostate cancer, which is then followed also by lung and colorectal cancer. The most vicious and notorious cancers, which are responsible for the most amount of deaths in the United States are lung cancer and breast cancer. Together these two cancers are responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths per year.… [Read More]

Against Odds Australian Women's Experiences Recovery Breast

Against Odds: Australian Women's Experiences Recovery Breast Cancer

Elmir, R, Jackson, D, Beale, B., & Schmied, V 2009. Against all odds: Australian women's experiences of recovery from breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 19, pp.2531-2538.

Elmir, Jackson, Beale & Schmied (2009, p.2531) investigates the younger female's experiences following breast cancer-linked breast surgery. The purpose of the study was to create an understanding of the experiences of women who under-go breast cancer surgeries. Elmir et al. (2009, p.2533) study aimed at contributing to the base of knowledge for clinicians practicing in the field of breast cancer. The underlying principle behind the study carried out by Elmir and associates is the prevalence of breast cancer among younger women and inadequate studies concerning recuperating from breast cancer-linked surgery.

McMurray & Clendon (2010, p. 241) assert that breast cancer is affecting younger women between 20 and 40 years given the better surveillance and earlier detection. The younger women experience aggressive forms of breast cancer and reduced survival rate compared to postmenopausal women. Younger women with breast cancer experience shorter life span, but prolonged treatment up shots with possibility of premature menopause and infertility (McMurray & Clendon 2010, p. 241). According to Elmir and associates,…… [Read More]

Stereotactic Breast Biopsy

Stereotactic Breast Biopsy

Breast cancer is a very common disease, and is the most common type of cancer in women, although it is not unheard of for a man to have breast cancer. About one women in eight (12% of all women) will develop breast cancer at some time in her life. Approximately 50,000 women die from breast cancer every year. Early detection is an important factor in the successful treatment of breast cancer. Utilizing monthly self breast exams, periodic professional exams, and mammography breast cancer can usually be detected early. With early detection, breast cancer can be treated more effectively and patient outcomes improve. Mammograms are an essential part of this screening process. Although there is some controversy, the generally accepted recommendations for mammogram include a screening mammogram at age 35, annual mammograms every one or two years from age 40-50, and an annual mammogram after age 50. The mammogram does not make the diagnosis of cancer. It can show changes that may represent cancer. Often these changes are too small to be felt on examination. When these changes require a diagnosis, they have traditionally been removed with surgical excision following wire localization. The mammogram is used as a…… [Read More]

Medical Advances in Cancer

Medical Advances in Cancer Treatment Research

This paper discusses the medical advances in cancer treatment research. The writer explores several treatment options and compares them to treatment options of the past. There were two sources used to complete this paper.

There was a time when a diagnosis of cancer meant a death sentence. The word still strikes a chord of fear among the millions each year who are told they have it, but in recent years there have been many advances in medical science that allow many who would have died from the disease to live long and full lives. There are more cancer survivors now than ever before and treatment options continue to be made available.

In the past there were only two options for the treatment of cancer. One could have surgery and one could be given a course of radiation treatments. The surgery was for the purpose of removing the tumor. That treatment option is still being used today to cut the tumor out of the body. The changes in treatment following surgery however have changed dramatically. Today patients are given a variety of options and given much more detailed explanations as to how those treatment options…… [Read More]

Diagnosis of Cancer There Is

He may also be humiliated by his having the disease or may be avoided by others who do not know how to approach the patient or are discomfited by doing so, particularly since cancer indicates mortality and mortality is one aspect of life's facts that individuals generally like to avoid.

Other feelings of inferiority and shame are caused by loss of autonomy and independence, vulnerability, and mutilation and most frightening of all is the fear of death. Clinical depression can easily become an outcome.

Some may also experience psychiatric disorder as a result, with the Psychological Collaborative Oncology Group finding that 47% of patients who had been diagnosed with cancer fell into psychiatric disorder with two thirds having depressed or anxious moods whilst one third experienced major depression, delirium, anxiety disorder, or some other major mental illness (Sandoval-Cros, 1999)

Methods to lessen physical and psychological effects.

The three most common types of effects causing physical and psychological consequences are anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and delirium. Methods used for reduction of their symptoms can be spread to other negative areas too.

Drugs can be used for anxiety. These include benzodiazepines such as lorzepam or clonazapem. Busiprone can be helpful too and…… [Read More]

Lung Cancer Research in Gene

Cancer nurses with sufficient knowledge of the biological basis of these therapies would be better equipped to deal with the practical clinical implications and provide better symptoms management. The technical understanding of the nurses is also crucial in educating and in enabling the patients to take care of themselves. Further, it also goes without saying that nurses, as the primary caregivers are responsible for the emotional well being of the patients. Improving the quality of life is one of the most important features of cancer care and the cancer nurse plays a large role in this by providing proactive and treatment centric nursing interventions for symptoms palliation.… [Read More]

Nutrition & Cancer Rates There

In the daily diet; (5) Include cruciferous vegetables in the diet. (Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and cauliflower); (6) Consume alcoholic beverages only moderately; and (7) Only moderately consume salt-cured, smoked and nitrate cured foods. (American Cancer Society, 1984, pp. 122-123) What little was understood about nutrition as it relates to cancer rates is summed up in the following specific food categories by the American Cancer Society in its 1984 report:

Food Additives -- chemicals of a variety are added to foods for improving the color and flavor of the foods and to preserve the foods. While some of these have been banned due to having been shown to cause cancer in animals others are believed to protect against carcinogens.

Vitamin E -- Vitamin E is an oxidant and while it may prevent cancer in animals more research is needed of the role Vitamin E plays in preventing cancer in humans.

Selenium -- This substance may be poisonous if wrongly used however, there is evidence that this trace element may provide some protection against the individual developing cancer.

Artificial sweeteners -- there is some evidence that these cause cancer in animals. The long-term risk of developing cancer due to use of the…… [Read More]

Role of Lifestyle Factors in Inducing Cancer

Lifestyle Factors Inducing Cancers

Course code

Cancer is one of the leading international causes of morbidity and mortality. Lifestyle factors that contribute to causing cancer have been widely studied in recent years. Summarizing relevant studies, lifestyle factors identified include smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, weight management, physical activity, and environmental exposure. These studies use a variety of methodologies to determine the link between the lifestyle factor and risk of cancer. Issues with the methods of these studies can be addressed by future research that attempts to remedy methodological defects while replicating results. Valid and reliable information is essential to using information about lifestyle factors to combat cancer.

Lifestyle Factors Inducing Cancers

As one of the leading causes of mortality in the world, it is estimated that cancers will have killed 10 million people around the globe by 2020 (Haque et al. 2010). In 2009, the American Cancer Society estimated that there were nearly 1.5 million new cancer cases and about 560,000 cancer deaths (Khan, Afaq, and Mukhtar, 2010). Unfortunately, there is no guaranteed form of treatment for cancer and emphasis has been placed on prevention and early detection in order to combat this disease (Haque et al., 2010).

While the precise…… [Read More]

Aetiology and Management of Cancer

This is related to bronchitis, asthma and long-term conditions such as lung cancer and bladder cancer (Robinson, 2009).

It is estimated that the chances of getting bladder cancer is high for ex-smokers and passive smokers even after thirty years later. This brings us to the question of management of bladder cancer for current and ex-smokers as well as passive smokers.

The management of bladder cancer is a three-pronged approach that involves reducing the progression of the disease, protecting the bladder and increasing the chances of survival. The course of treatment depends to a large extent on the stage of the cancer. During the earlier stages, surgery, trans urethral resection, intravesical chemotherapy and immunotherapy are used to contain the disease and prevent it from progressing further. The malignant areas are treated with one of the above procedures to remove the tumor. In the case of a more advanced stage, radical cystectomy or the complete removal of bladder is done to remove it completely from the system. Though the bladder cancer treatments are effective in most cases, it nevertheless has some side effects such as frequency of urination and severe pain during urination.

In short, bladder cancer is a preventable and treatable…… [Read More]

Diet and Cancer

diet and cancer. The Works… [Read More]

Recurrence of Cancer Psychosocial Impact

(2009, March). Women's Health Law Weekly, 34. Retrieved March 1, 2009 from Research Library database. (Document ID: 1651848781).

CNSs need skills in mental health. (2009). Cancer Nursing Practice, 8(1), 6. Retrieved March 1, 2009, from ProQuest Health and Medical Complete database. (Document ID: 1651343051).

Lance Armstrong Foundation. (2009). Official Website.

Retrieved March 1, 2009. http://www.livestrong.org/site/c.khLXK1PxHmF/b.2660611/k.BCED/Home.htm

Heyman, Patrick & Sandra Wolfe. (2001). Neuman's System's Model. University of Florida.

Retrieved March 1, 2009, at http://www.patheyman.com/essays/neuman/short.htm

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Uchitomi. (2005). Psychiatric disorders following first breast cancer recurrence:

Prevalence, associated factors and relationship to quality of life. Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology, 35(6), 302-9. Retrieved March 1, 2009, from ProQuest

Medical Library database. (Document ID: 876421851).

Quinlin, Patrick. (2001). Beating cancer with nutrition. Nutrition Times Press.

Pengelly, Michele & Diana Purnell. (2009). An audit of levels of psychological support referrals for cancer patients. Cancer Nursing Practice, 8(1), 34-38. Retrieved March 1, 2009 from ProQuest Health and Medical Complete database. (Document ID: 1651343201).

Strauss, Phyllis Koling. (1992). Chronic maternal illness: The adjustment of young adult offspring. Ph.D. dissertation, Yeshiva University, United States -- New York. Retrieved March 1, 2009, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication…… [Read More]

American Cancer Society the Foundation Has Possess

American Cancer Society

The foundation has possess the quality and fiscal support to focus on short-term goal setting by looking and focusing on identification and ways to cure and heal the patients that have cancer never leading toward concern and sympathy in putting a stop to malignant cells and prescribing the right medication to save lives. In reviewing the process of the Society and its decisions it needs to make and carry out for the next 6 months, it has done exceptionally well by starting to put more time and concern in to collecting donations and contributions that really make a difference in how the American Cancer Society, (ACS), can spend money. There is three ways in which this foundation is looking at improving the money they are funded with in order for them to carry out experimentations, look for cures, and afford research, as well as improve the facility's rapport with their patients and their families. The American Cancer Society is currently working hard to build up the education and knowledge of focusing on mammographic exams, foreign interactions, and different methods and programs for prevention (Epstein, 1999).

The American Cancer Society has a close connection with the mammography, procedure…… [Read More]

Mechanisms of Cancer the Cancer

This then leads to the activation of a number of genes whose products trigger cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, or DNA repair" (Lakin 1999, p. 7644).

In research led by Hussain, he investigated the targets of free radicals, which are DNA, proteins, RNA, and lipids. He noted that, "mutations in cancer-related genes or post-translational modifications of proteins by nitration, nitrosation, phosphorylation, acetylation or polyADP-ribosylation-by free radiacals or lipid peroxidation byproducts…are some of the key events that can increase the cancer risk" (Hussain 2003, p. 276). Furthermore, changes in DNA occur when the person has been exposed to high levels of nitric oxide or NO. p53 plays a role in that it acts as a mediator to stress but NO "causes p53 accumulation and post-translational modifications that inhibit cellular growth" (Hussain 2003, p. 278). His research has revealed that when exposed to NO during chronic inflammation sans wild-type p53, there might be increased risk due to negative inducible NO synthase or iNOS regulation. In the same study, the cellular workings of breast cancer was stated by that the "polymorphism of the gene encoding the antioxidant enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), which convert O2 to H2O2 alters protein trafficking" (Hussain 2003, p. 282) thus…… [Read More]

Treatment and Management of Cancer Diagnosis Obligations

Treatment and Management of Cancer

Cancer Diagnosis

Obligations of community health nurse in providing healthcare

Cancer Diagnosis

The high demand for healthcare services, especially to those managing dreadful illnesses such as cancer, there is a dire need to understand the health promotion strategies and also ensure quality lives. Here, is a discussion assisting to analyze how best to improve health and better management of dreaded conditions like diseases such as cancer. Those affected will learn to adopt the right measures that will help to improve functional abilities, and what to practice in case self-care is not an option. The mandate of community health nurses will be scrutinized, to help acquire general knowledge on efficient management of diseases.

Cancer is a disease, which has characteristics of growths that cannot be controlled, and also the abnormality of how rapidly the cells are spread to other organs. Cancers vary in their areas of diagnosis such as breast, throat, lung, brain and many other types. Cancer is caused by many factors, both internal and external. The internal causes include poor immunity conditions, metabolic and inherited mutations and hormones. The external causes include consumption of chemicals, radiations, nicotine inhalation and other organisms that are infectious.…… [Read More]

Dealing With Side Effects of Treatment and Diagnosis Approach to Care of Cancer

Care of Cancer

Cancer has overtaken HIV / AIDS and malaria to top the list of headaches for medical departments and policy makers alike. In 2012, cancer claimed a massive 8.2 million lives, with breast, colorectal, stomach, lung, and liver cancers accounting for more than three-quarters of these. Alcohol and tobacco use, lack of physical activity, low vegetable and fruit intake, and high body mass index have been found to be responsible for a significant 30% of cancer deaths, with tobacco use causing 70% of the 1.59 million global lung cancer deaths reported in 2012. Metastasis, the process occasioned or characterized by unusual growth of abnormal cells, which end up invading adjacent parts, eventually extending to neighboring organs, is the mainspring of death from cancer. The World Health Organization projects that annual cancer cases will hit 22 million by the year 2020, but maintains that mortality can be reduced if cases are diagnosed, and treated early. However, the high levels of ignorance among the public, and the fact that most people consider 'cancer' a taboo subject present significant obstacles to the fight against cancer. It is time we took initiative and fed the public with the right information regarding the…… [Read More]

Women's Health Issue Ovarian Cancer

These include bloating, abdominal or pelvic pain, frequent and/or urgent urination, and difficulty eating because one feels very full very quickly (MedicineNet, 2009). However, these were only agreed upon in 2007 and not all doctors feel that these are the best markers of ovarian cancer (MedicineNet, 2009). A lot of women experience at least the first two of these symptoms quite often during their menstrual cycle, and the others are not that uncommon, either. Women cannot be running to the doctor every time they have one small symptom, but a group of symptoms that appears and is persistent is certainly worth checking out, if only to provide peace of mind for a woman who may be worried about whether she has cancer or something much more benign (MedicineNet, 2009).

Like many other cancers, ovarian cancer does seem to have some genetic link. In other words, if a lot of people in a family have had cancer, of any kind, other people in that family are more likely to have it, too. This means that women with strong family histories of cancer will want to get checkups more often, pay more attention to their bodies and any kinds of symptoms that…… [Read More]

Thromboembolism Venous Thromboembolism Cancer Care

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Roxanna Boelsen, RN, MS, AOCN, (2001), 'Clinical Focus: Deep Vein Thrombosis', Vol 5, No 4, Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing. Available online at, http://www.ons.org/publications/journals/cjon/Volume5/Issue4/0504167.asp

Theresa Wicklin Gillespie (2005), 'Nursing Interventions in the management of patients with cancer associated Thrombosis', Seminars in Oncology Nursing,…… [Read More]

Living With Incurable Cancer at the End

Living With Incurable Cancer at the End of Life-Patients' Perceptions on Quality of Life

Johansson, Christina Melin RN, Phd-student; Axelsson, Bertil MD, PhD; Danielson, Ella RN, PhD

This article is either a qualitative or a quantitative research study. Identify which, and then complete the table below where applicable. Write no more than three sentences in each cell of the table. The study may not contain all of the elements listed, or the element may be necessary and is not addressed. If the study does not address one of these elements and it is not necessary, simply indicate as N/A in the appropriate box. If the element is not adequately discussed, explain based on your readings and your understanding of the research study.

Qualitative

Quantitative

Research question

How do patients describe their perceptions of the quality of life (QoL) in incurable cancer at the end of life?

N/A

Problem

Patients with terminal cancer often receive palliative care (treatment to relieve systems) in order to secure QoL at the end of life. Most often treatment is limited to procedures to alleviate physical symptoms such as pain and fatigue.

N/A

Purpose

This study was designed to explore the not only the physical dimensions…… [Read More]