Latin America Essays Examples

Latin America in the National Period

Latin America's problems owe a great deal to a tradition of caudillism, personal politics and authoritarianism." It will also give definitions for eight terms associated with Latin American studies: caudillism, liberalism, The Export Boom, Neocolonialism, Import Subsidizing Industrialization, Bureaucratic Authoritarianism and Privatization.

Latin America currently faces many problems, with diverse causes and manifestations, for example, huge external debts, lack of development in infrastructure, low levels of education for children, and low levels of health care for the population (with concurrent high infant mortality rates and low age expectancies). Many authors (such as Juan Manuel de Rosas, author of Argentine Caudillo, John Reed, author of Insurgent Mexico, and Jacobo Timerman, author of Prisoner Without a Name, Cell Without a Number) have argued that Latin America's current problems stem from a period of history (the National period), following independence, during which caudillismo was popular, and personalistic politics and authoritarianism were the rule.

This paper seeks to evaluate this premise, by analyzing a variety of sources and presenting various viewpoints concerning this particular posture. Indeed, Latin American political parties have often been allied with a particular leader - for example, the Peronistas in Argentina, or the Fidelistas in Cuba - and this particular…… [Read More]

Latin America History

indigenous people were conquered and colonized. The writer will focus on the Incas and discuss their many evidences of colonization and being conquered. The evidence the writer will present will be in religious, economic and social discussion to illustrate the writer's belief that they were indeed conquered against their will and then later colonized. There were three sources used to complete this paper.

The Spanish were interested in development and growth in the 16th and 17th century and to that end they examined areas of the world that they believed would provide them with natural resources and power and they took the land over (Schwartz PG). Often times there were already indigenous people living there and the Spanish would forcefully conquer and colonize those people (SPANISH DEVELOPMENT (http://www.econ.org/octlessons/ushistory3,2-3.htm).One of the most interesting cases of the Spanish conquering and taking over an indigenous people was the Incas conquer. It was most interesting because the Incas had never been a passive people and the idea of them being taken over is something that is often debated. They were indeed conquered by the Spanish however, and the very fact that they were known to be power seeking peoples themselves beforehand only strengthens the…… [Read More]

Economic Development in Latin America 1880-1930

Latin American Economy

Between years 1880 and 1930 the Latin American nations had an unprecedented amount of growth. Throughout Latin America, nations were increasing their revenue which led to stronger economies and consequently much stronger political structures and governmental support as well. This was largely due to the development of communication and the influence of American interests throughout the region. The increased levels of communication allowed more individuals to exchange products as well as ideas. With this, there was a larger groups of potential consumers for products and services, meaning a dramatic increase in revenues collected.

What are the basic characteristics of economic development in Latin America between 1880 and 1930?

Many Latin American nations utilize agriculture to support their economy. When lines of trade became more widely-spread, these agricultural products were able to be exported to Europe and to the United States of America as well. All the economic development in Latin America in the fifty year period between 1880 and 1930 stemmed from the exportation of agricultural staples such as sugar cane and bananas.

How did different countries of the region integrate into the world economy?

The integration of Latin American nations into the world economy was based…… [Read More]

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Poverty in Latin America and the Impact on Society

Latin America

Both social and financial inequality has been a contentious issue within society for decades. Poverty, particularly in Latin America has been a large issue as countries become industrialized. As many Latin American countries develop, the poverty gap becomes wider. Many rallies, protests, political movements and government upheavals have been centered on the issue of inequality. Currently, the problem is exacerbated by the economic struggles of many around the world. As many economies become global in nature, so too do there interconnectedness. A fiscal or monetary policy in one nation will have adverse consequences for an unsuspecting nation in another. We need not look any further than the current economic calamity within Europe as proof. In the United States and abroad nations are taking defensive action in the event of a Euro zone default which would have cataclysmic consequences for the global economy. Even more profound is the nature of inequalities as a result of this new found global economy. Latin America is no different in this regard as many of its fortunes, and thus its inequality are correlated to the global economy. As such, it is my belief that Latin America's poverty corresponds directly to the interconnectedness of…… [Read More]

Advancing Democracy in Latin America

However, despite the severe competition, the people of Latin America still hold the traditions of the church close to their hearts and give a lot of respect to religious figures (Jean-Pierre, 1998).

The relationship between the church and the government has been very closely bonded. The message coming from the religious quarters has been very finely tuned in line with the policies of the governments as well as the status quo. Contradiction and conflict does seem to exist on the surface, however, deep down the bond between the state actors and the church is very strong. Lately, the church has also power of becoming a very strong instrument of political and social campaign, capable of bargaining with the state actors so as to meet its own ends (Jean-Pierre, 1998).

The relationship between the church and the military has been perhaps the strongest of them all. Religion has been a major source of inspiration for the armed forces and has been a major assurance to secure connection between the workings of the state and the affairs of the church and as a result has played a major role in promoting democracy. Regrettable, very little scholarly attention has been given to analyze…… [Read More]

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Economy of Latin America

Economy of Latin America:

Short Overview

The economic situation of any specific geographic and geopolitical area is an integral part of the overall "picture" of the state of that area. Although much is said about the increasing "globalization" of the world economy -- that, essentially, the individual market areas of specific countries and regions are moving toward a single, world economy, there remain significant economic trends and pressures within varied geo-political areas that are quite unique. Indeed, although a so called "new economy" may be emerging in which all nations may be directly interconnected, that does not mean that all will be equal. Instead, it seems that there will be some nations (at least for a time), squarely on the top of the hill, while those countries that are already on the bottom will stay there as a result of their "top down" dependence. The economic situation of Latin America in specific is one of these areas.

Latin America is a geographic area often described as including all of the countries south of the United States border. Of course, this geopolitical area is incredibly diverse culturally, linguistically, and politically. Yet, despite this diversity, the region holds significant interlocking similarities in…… [Read More]

Domino Theory in Latin America

195-196). The crushing poverty of the region, when combined with sometimes extreme civil rights abuses, led Catholic Church leaders in Latin America to establish Base Christian Communities (CBEs) committed to raising awareness of social injustices (Green, 2006, p. 206-208). As a result, many of the church and CBE leaders died at the hands of the military. These were the conditions in place when the Sandinistas expelled Somoza from power; therefore leftists in the neighboring dictatorships viewed the Sandinista victory as a way forward.

To prevent the domino theory from being realized, newly elected President Reagan created an aggressive anti-leftist Latin American policy (Green, 2006, p. 65-66). The U.S. invaded Grenada and replaced the leftist government with a more 'friendly' one. In Nicaragua and El Salvador the U.S. funded proxy armies to undermine the Sandinistas and the Salvadoran guerillas, respectively. In Nicaragua, the Contras (proxy army) were able to weaken and eventually remove the Sandinistas from office by forcing scarce economic resources to be diverted to military defense. U.S. efforts in El Salvador were less successful as both sides eventually agreed to peace, which brought the guerillas back into society and removed the military from power.

Despite the efforts of the…… [Read More]

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Guerillas Latin America Latin America

Several groups were formed according to Arm the Spirit (2006):

In the middle of the 80s, a new mass movement formed by workers, Christians, feminists, blacks, indigenous people, and the inhabitants of slums was spreading and taking over the streets... Socialists, communists, and former guerrillas of the FARC-EP established the 'Union Patriotica' (UP). Sympathizers of the EPL ran as the 'Frente Popular' in the local elections. The most radical parts of the mass movement founded the political movement 'A Luchar!'."

The Betancur government was clever enough to handle the situation through reporting to the general public that he was having a dialogue with the guerrillas while the truth was he created paramilitary groups. Murder of guerrillas leaders were continued to vanished and in 1984, the paramilitary group purposely shot Jaime Pardo Leal who was the presidential candidate of Union Patriotica. The government military group attacked the camp of the guerrillas even though peace order was implemented. In 1989, M19 weakened; their presidential candidate was also killed. The guerrilla groups became disorganized particularly the "Ejercito Popular de Liberacion" (EPL).

At present, the guerrillas in Colombia became stronger and well organized. They have supporters locally and internationally. It has been said that…… [Read More]

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Colonial Latin America -- 3

They began rounding up people by the hundreds and shipping them back to Europe to work as slaves; the conditions of travel were so severe that approximately half died at sea. On the New World islands, the Spanish explorers forced the native inhabitants to mine for the gold that the Spanish erroneously believed was present in great quantities and they enforced ridiculously unrealistic daily quotas through barbaric means such as cutting off the hands of any Indian who failed to reach his required yield. They also routinely raped, tortured, and killed the peaceful native inhabitants, sometimes for no reason whatsoever besides their amusement. During the entire Colonial period, the European explorers eventually completely wiped out native civilizations, some of which had previously numbered in the millions.

Describe the social hierarchy of the Latin American and Caribbean colonies.

Many of the Spanish and other European explorers who were ordinary citizens in their home countries took the opportunity to establish themselves as a sort of "nobility" class in the New World, largely by the threat imposed by their superior weapon technology. Naturally, the Europeans created a social hierarchy in which they were at the top with indigenous Indians in the middle and…… [Read More]

Poverty in Latin America and the Impact on Society

poverty in Latin America. Latin America has always been in poverty and although there have been some ups and downs, the poverty level remains great. First, we will discuss the region that is known as Latin America, the determining factors of poverty, the statistics and history of the poverty in Latin America and the future of the poverty in Latin America.

Latin America refers to the areas of America in which the Spanish or Portuguese languages prevail. These areas include Mexico, most of Central and South America, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Brazil. Latin America can be subdivided into different regions, such as North America, South America, Central America and the Caribbean. (Wikipedia, Retrieved 2012).

Latin America consists of many different ethnic backgrounds and races. It is one of the most diverse regions in the world. Some of the predominant races/backgrounds include European-Amerindians (Mestizo), Amerindians, European, Mulatto, Black, Asian and Zambo (mixed Black and Amerindian).

Latin America continues to be challenged by inequality and poverty. Poverty is defined as, "the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions." (Merriam-Webster, Retrieved 2012). According to the World Bank, nearly 25% of the population…… [Read More]

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Political Movements in Latin America

defends a definition of populism, addressing its ideology, social base, charisma, clientelism, and the extent of institutionalization; the second part argues that populism and guerrilla movements are very similar phenomena, divided only by the level of their extremism.

There are many definitions of 'populism', as seemingly each academic uses his or her own definition of this term, expecting all readers to automatically agree with this definition. As Roberts (1995) says, "few social science concepts can match populism when it comes to nebulous and inconsistent usage." As Roberts (1995) says, "These multiple dimensions have allowed the populist concept to be applied to a wide range of loosely connected empirical phenomena, ranging from economic policies and development phases to political ideologies, movements, parties, governments, and social coalitions": some of these will be discussed below.

Some definitions label political populism as, "excessive centralization of decision-making, i.e., rule by decree, with decreasing depoliticization" (Eder, 2003). Many academics, such as Eder (2003) have shown that globalization (and neoliberalism) has not put an end to populism, but rather has transformed it, into 'neopopulism', which leaves little room for 'true' democracy to develop in those countries that have followed these paths. As we shall see, Venezuela and…… [Read More]

Is the Relationship Between Latin America and the US a Positive One for Latin America

U.S. And Latin America, through discussion of the following case studies: Cuba and the U.S. trade embargo; Mexico and the use of U.S. branch plants (or maquiladors); Colombia and the U.S.A. war on drugs; Brazil and the U.S. environmental standards in the rainforest; Panama Canal and U.S. actions regarding U.S. involvement; and the Chile-U.S. fair trade agreement. The paper finds that the relationship between the U.S. And Latin America is not a positive one for Latin America.

has a long history of interaction with Latin America, from its involvement with Cuba, which stemmed from the Cuban missile crisis, to its current covert activities in Colombia, in response to the drug problems created in the U.S. from cocaine production in Colombia. The paper will discuss the history and workings of six of these interactions, as detailed in the Executive Summary, and the effect of these interactions upon Latin America. The paper finds that the history of U.S. interaction with Latin America is not a positive one for Latin America.

Literature Review

Cuba and the U.S. trade embargo

The issue of Cuba has been a thorn in the side of the U.S. since the Cuban missile crisis. Currently, the U.S. imposes a…… [Read More]

U S Latin America Relations State

To ensure Allende never came to power, before resorting to "jackals," the United States, through the CIA, spend three million dollars campaigning against him, mostly through radio and print social marketing. Allende had a warm relationship with Cuba and had openly criticized the invasion of the Bay of Pigs.

This all was in line with the earlier outlined U.S. policy which invoked control of Latin American countries as key to U.S. primacy. In 1971, Nixon's National Security Council articulated, that if the U.S. could not control Latin America, then how could it expect "to achieve a successful order elsewhere in the world?" (Nimmo)

1. Holden, H. Robert. (2002) Latin America and the United States: A documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press, doc. No. 71 a Realist Views Latin America George F. Kennan.

2. Holden, H. Robert. (2002) Latin America and the United States: A documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press, doc. No.68 a Charter for Covert Action? The Congress of the United States and the Doolittle Commission.

3. ____. Bolivian Revolution, 1952, Global Security 2010.

Accessed at: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/bolivia.htm

4. Holden, H. Robert. (2002) Latin America and the United States: A documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press, doc.…… [Read More]

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U S -- Latin America International

At the basis for this type of illogical action on the part of the United States, according to the authors, is the American fear of communism. The authors categorize this fear within American ideology, as opposed to their economic and political ends. The authors note that American policy with regard to their political and economic goals are generally sound. The same is not however true in terms of their ideology.

This point is substantiated by a consideration of the American mentality during the time of the Cold War. There was an extreme, almost religious fear of the "communism" concept during the time. Both politicians and citizens regarded the communist ideology as directly opposed to the American ideal of democracy and freedom. The government therefore had the blessing of the people whenever policies were instated to combat communism in Latin American countries. In the name of their democratic ideology, and in opposition to communism, the United States government went as far as incurring disproportionate costs in its attempt to overthrow governments and fight wars to enforce its ideology.

While the authors make a compelling argument, one is left with the feeling that the anti-communist ideology was at the basis of all…… [Read More]

Examine the Economic Geographies of Contemporary Latin America Using Globalization Theories

Economic Geographies of Contemporary Brazil

Economic geographies of contemporary Latin America (Brazil), using globalization theories

Economic geography is defined as the branch of Geography that is concerned with the interrelations between the economic and the physical conditions to the production and distribution of the available commodities or resources (Merrriam Webster Incorporated, 2011). It deals with the influence of both the organic and inorganic environment on the activities of man.

This paper is focused on divulging how the physical conditions relate to the resources available for the people living in Brazil and the Latin America in general. In the bid to find out this relationship, there will be several globalization theories that will be looked into in order to be able to understand clearly the relationship and the distribution that there is.

Definition of terms

According to Hunington (2011), the economic geography covers the distribution of various types of resources, institutions, capacities, activities, customs and variety of ability that concerns earning a living. This then means that economic geography includes three major entities; industrial, agricultural and commercial.

There are various theories that try to explain the factors behind the physical conditions and the distribution of the resources. They try to sow…… [Read More]

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World History US Latin America Imperialism

Imperialism has been present in the world for many generations and encompasses many different events throughout the world including Boer Wars, the murder of Congolese people by Leopold ii of Belgium, the Suez Canal and the presence of the Dutch East India Co. Imperialism in Latin America has been advantageous in some respects and disadvantageous in other respects. Latin America encompasses all of the Americas inclusive of Spanish and Portuguese empires. The United States has played a key role in Latin American imperialism in world history. This role is particularly evident after 1775.

Imperialism in Latin American can be seen in several instances. One of the most important instances occurred with the battle of Manila bay (1898) during the Spanish-American war. At the time George Dewey was the admiral of the American navy. The battle of Manila bay marked the beginning of American imperialism in Cuba. At the time of the Spanish wars Cuba was fighting for its independence from Spain. However the United States desired to bring Cuba under its control and used its defeat at the battle of Manila Bay to accomplish this goal. To this end,

"In 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Platt Amendment. This amendment,…… [Read More]

Works Cited:

Paul Sigmund's 1981 Latin America

If the respective happening has given birth to different feelings in different individuals, then their perceptions and memories will also differ. The same is true for countries. And as the insights vary based on subjectivity, the same can be said about the decisions affecting the state, and taken by the state in relationship with its citizens, neighbors or the overall global community.

In this context then, it is understandable that the very personal characteristics of the country make the United States' citizens and political wings portray the state as the strongest and most important one in the global arena. But as the report quoted by William Rogers (1984) shows, it is not sufficient for the U.S. To be strong, resourceful and important, and as such impose its ways onto the other states. It is however expected of them to get involved in the problems of the foreign countries and offer their support in finding solutions, but their intervention has to be adequate.

What this virtually means is that the country ought to address the various variable of a problem. For instance, in resolving the poverty issues in some Latin American countries, they should not simply focus on the economy, but…… [Read More]

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Globalization and the Role of the USA in Latin America

Industrialization was the metropolis' privilege; in poor nations, it was unsuited to the system of dominance of rich nations. The culmination of the Second World War saw European interests completely waning from the Latin American region, and the triumphant advance of American investments. Ever since, a significant change has been observed, in investment's focus. One step after another, one year after another, capital investments in mining and public services have lost prominence, while petroleum investments, and, in particular, investments in the manufacturing sector, have proportionately grown. Presently, one out of every three dollars Latin America invests is in the industrial sector (Galeano 1973; 205).

In exchange for minor investments, giant corporations' affiliates cross the customs barriers absurdly erected against foreign competitors, and take possession of the domestic process of industrialization. They export industrial units or, often, waylay and consume those that already exist. Moreover, such investments, which transform the factories of Latin America into nothing but cogwheels in the machinery of industrial giants, do not alter global labor division in any manner. No change is seen in the framework of interconnected channels through which goods and capital circulate between the rich and poor nations. A continued export of Latin American…… [Read More]

Spanish Inquisition in Colonial Latin America

Inquisitions have played a major role in the Catholic Church since early in the Church's history.[footnoteRef:1]. They are considered one of the most shameful part of the history of the Catholic Church and part of the darkest periods in Jewish history. One of the great Catholic theologians, St. Augustine, offered support for the Inquisition process by citing from the Book of Luke, 14:23. Then the master told his servant, "Go out to the roads and country lanes and make them come in, so that my house will be full." [1: Lea, Henry Charles. A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages. Harbor Press, 1888.]

The purpose of the inquisitions was to allow the Church's bishops to inquire into possible heresies and punish heretics for violations regarding matters of faith and morals. Coincidental with the authority to inquire came the power to administer capital punishment, excommunicate conduct autos de fe, i.e. pronounce penance upon the violator. Underlying this grant of power was the Church's philosophy that "once a Catholic, always a Catholic." Conversion to Catholicism was allowed but once one entered the Church through Baptism the only way to exit was through death or excommunication.

The Inquisition procedure was initiated…… [Read More]

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Spanish Inquisition in Latin America

" Although a similar situation regarding sexual deviance, sex between males was deemed a far more serious crime than mere masturbation. In fact, many states in the United States still have laws on the books that make sodomy, of any kind, illegal. This demonstrates that the traditions of colonial America and religious beliefs have continued to be passed down to this day, even in fully developed nations. Yet, the case involving Damian de Morales helps to bring to light another aspect of the Spanish Inquisition: it could be employed as a tool to eliminate potential rivals.

In the era following the Council of Trent (1545-63), when instilling sexual discipline became an important part of the Catholic world's response to the threat posed by the Protestant Reformation, the pecado nefando and the other sins of lust took on a particular importance for secular and ecclesiastical authorities. Yet given the gravity of the offense and the nature of the crime, the abominable sin could also be used to serve district, more local and often interpersonal political ends -- a well-placed accusation could defame and adversary and ensnare him in a lengthy and potentially deadly legal process."

This was the functional nature of…… [Read More]

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Latin America American Terrorism Issues and Possible

Latin America

American terrorism issues and possible convergence with drug cartels in Central and South America

Terrorism in Latin America

Columbia

The leftist National Liberation Army (ELN)

United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC)

The leftist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)

Cuba

Venezuela

Mexico

Iranian Activity and Sponsorship Focus

Tri- Boarder area of Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay

Regional Overview and Criminal Activities and Concerns

Parallel developments of Terrorism and Organized Crime

Poverty, Discrimination and Relative Denial

Interconnections between Terrorism and Organized Crime

Groups

Abu Nidal organization (ANO)

The leftist National Liberation Army (ELN)

United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC)

The leftist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)

HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement)

Hizballah (Party of God)

Types of Crime which may also Finance Terrorist Activity 25

Drugs and Drug Cartels 25

Smuggling

Credit Card fraud

Donations 27

Religious "Zakat" tax 27

International Organizations 27

Internet 28

U.S. Concerns, Response and Possible scenarios 28

Conclusion 28

Bibliography 30

Summary

This paper is about the threats of terrorism to Latin America. This research project will focus on an overview of Latin America terrorism issues and possible convergence with drug cartels (and/or other ordinary crime syndicates) in Central and South America. It will research…… [Read More]

Works Cited:

Latin America Carmen Miranda Carmen

I do not think Hollywood would accept many Latina performers if they did not play to this exotic idea of Latina women. It seems to be a stereotype that has held on from even before Carmen Miranda, and she just underscored it. Americans accept and promote stereotypes like this, and the performers mold to them, either consciously or unconsciously, in an attempt to broaden their careers and become famous, and even infamous. Lopez is so well-known for her sexy dresses and her music, and it is interesting that she seems to play to a Latin crowd, while promoting the stereotypes of Latina women. It seems like Latina women may never be able to shake off that stereotype of sex and exaggeration if they do not shake off their acceptance of it in their performers and lives.

References

Editors. "Biography." CarmenMiranda.com. 2005. 31 Aug. 2007. http://www.carmenmiranda.net/about/biography3.htm

Editors. "Jennifer Lopez." JenniferLopez.com. 2007. 31 Aug. 2007. http://www.jenniferlopez.com/

Stam, Robert. Tropical Multiculturalism: A Comparative History of Race in Brazilian Cinema and Culture. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997.… [Read More]

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Growth of Latin America vs

59-84). A lack of rule of law equates to lawlessness and high levels of violence and theft.

In aggregate the factors of investment, fertility, schooling, and socio-political openness to new venture create statistically significant differences in economic performance between the regions. What De Gregorio (et. al.) also found was Latin American nations are continually coming in and out of economic crises, which makes their banking system, money supply and balance-of-payments highly risky and difficult to invest in even when there is a growth opportunity. Latin America's greatest challenge will be in overcoming the tendency to continually cycle from one economic crisis to another.

References

De Gregorio (2004) - "Growth and Adjustment in East Asia and Latin America"

Econom'a Journal. Jose De Gregorio - Volume 5, Number 1, Fall 2004, pp. 69-134.

Brookings Institution Press. Accessed from the Internet on February 7, 2007 from location: http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/economia/toc/eco5.1.html

De Gregorio (1992). "Economic Growth in Latin America." De Gregorio, Jose Journal of Development Economics 39(1): 59-84.

Porter (1990) - Competitive Advantage of Nations, Dr. Michael Porter.

Harvard Business Review. Boston, MA. March…… [Read More]

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Art of Colonial Latin America

Admittedly, these two teams were faced with a daunting challenge in acquiring and interpreting those works of art that were most appropriate for their exhibition goals, and interpretive efforts must use some framework in which to present the resources in a fashion that can be understood and appreciated by the targeted audiences.

Nevertheless, there is little or no discussion concerning the fusion of artistic styles in the two catalogs, with a preference for a neat and orderly, date by date, presentation of representative works that typify the points being made by the exhibition. Despite these shortcomings, both catalogs were shown to be authoritative references that were supported by relevant citations and imagery. Likewise, both catalogs provide useful overviews of the materials that are being presented preparatory to their interpretation, helping place the information in its historical context.

Conclusion

The research showed that interest and appreciation in colonial Latin American art has experienced a resurgence in recent years, due in large part to comprehensive exhibitions of period art sponsored by organizations such as The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Denver Art Museum. The research also showed that authorities such as Gauvin Alexander Bailey maintain that colonial Latin American art is more…… [Read More]

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Environmental Problems in Latin America

FSC encourages businesses in Argentina using forest resources to promote a sustainable business policy and discourages businesses that neglect environmental and habitat concerns. Thus the FSC in effect is a global collaborative effort to minimize environmental damage and promote environmentally sustainable business practices and by doing so, protect our world from threats of global warming, acid rain, drastic climatic shifts and other serious consequences of environmental destruction and pollution. [FSC]

Conclusion

Argentina is one of the worst affected, economically as well as environmentally, among the Latin American countries. GM crops, in particular GM Soya, led an economic revolution, which unfortunately proved to be the environmental bane for the nation. GM cropping and Deforestation coupled to create a severe environmental debacle that has threatened to develop into catastrophic proportions. Thanks to the timely interventions from environmental groups like WWF, FVSA, FLR and other governmental agencies and NGO's, the situation has been checked under control and the rehabilitation projects are underway. It is hoped that the situation for Argentina will improve with the efforts of these environmental agencies.

Bibliography

WWF, "Environmental Problems in Argentina: More than 16 Million ha of Forest Cover Lost Between 1980 and 2000," Accessed May 15th 2007, available…… [Read More]

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Women Blacks and Natives in Colonial Latin America

Women, Blacks and Indigenous People in Colonial Latin America

Colonial Latin America was a diverse country, though it largely consisted of women, blacks and indigenous peoples. The manner of life for these groups was not always the same, as class could be divided between slaves and owners; and even in the work, there was diversity according to region. For example, in various urban areas, women "administered bakeries and worked in wax and tobacco factories."[footnoteRef:1] Thus, women's work depended upon social and ethnic orientation, with "some being considered more appropriate for the urban non-affluent white woman, and others most commonly carried out by Indians, castas or blacks."[footnoteRef:2] This paper will discuss the ways in which these particular groups worked and lived in Colonial Latin America. [1: Asuncion Lavrin, "Women in Spanish American Colonial Society," in The Cambridge History of Latin America, edited by Leslie Bethell (UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 330.] [2: Lavrin, "Women in Spanish American Colonial Society," 330.]

The work that women, blacks and indigenous persons performed was, as Lavrin has noted, dependent upon class and ethnicity as well as by whether or not a woman was married. By the 16th century, ranches were being administered by unwed women,…… [Read More]

Analyzing Civilizations of Latin America

Civilizations of Latin America

Human beings have always expressed themselves through culture; throughout history. The achievements made are a product of continued refinement over the ages. They are an inherited product of a diverse modified and complex evolution from the past through time. The Latin American case is a complex one. There is plenty of diversity exemplified but there are contradictions too. The complication arises from the fact that there is a remarkable cultural diversity in the vast continent; spanning Patagonia to Mesoamerica and from the past to modern day. The Latin American region has been full of controversies, disagreements, legends and mysteries that show the reasons why the continent should exist despite great pressure mounted by the West[footnoteRef:1]. In order to understand our existence as unique people, and for a clear coexistence attitude embedded in a social fabric, we must study, live and imagine the cultural orientations of Latin America. [1: Kahn, J.S. El concepto de cultura: Textos fundamentales. ]

Research Problem

The culture and civilization of Latin America is dynamic. It is also not possible to summarize it. An interdisciplinary method aimed at the overlaps of gender, social class, and even race within the context of the culture…… [Read More]

U S Intervention in Latin America

The accident in the Tonkin Gulf when North Vietnamese forces attacked the U.S. vessels and caused two airplanes to crash was a good reason to start the conflict, as the troops of North Vietnam violated the Geneva Convention and attacked a foreign navy in the neutral international waters. The United States has to react on this accident, as it was the mater of international respect, but at the same time the presidents administration had to estimate the future consequences of the military strike back. It was not secret that a lot of Soviet weapon was concentrated in North Vietnam, and Viet Kong army was ready to start the war for the unification of the country as it was guaranteed to have a support from Soviets.

Invention in Grenada was caused by the Cuban influence on Grenada's government in early 1980 iers. Grenada changed its political orientation and turned to the U.S.S.R. And Cuba as it considered them to be its partners. As the result it started to build its military defense system getting support from Cuba and Soviets. It was considered to be a threat to the security in the region that was guaranteed by the U.S.A. And the Organization…… [Read More]

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Relations With Latin America and Caribbean Region

China's Relations With Latin America And Caribbean Countries

China's presence in Latin America and the Caribbean countries has increased in the past decade following the country's improved diplomatic initiatives. China has essentially increased its presence in this region through establishing cultural, military, trade, and financial relations. To enhance its diplomatic ties with Latin America and the Caribbean countries, China has used several foreign policy initiatives that have contributed to deeper relations. Actually, the strategies used by China to develop ties with Latin America and the Caribbean countries have not only deepened relations but pose an imminent threat to the United States.

One of the ways through which China has achieved its deeper relations with Latin America and the Caribbean countries is through emphasizing on developing South-South cooperation. This emphasis has granted governments and business in the region an alternative to the U.S., which has in turn created stronger political, military, economic, trade, and cultural relations with China. Secondly, China has increased its financing and investments in Latin America and the Caribbean even though the U.S. is still considered the region's preferred economic partner. The increased financing and investments have helped create a far-reaching economic relationship with China.

Third, China has…… [Read More]

U S Relations With Latin America and the Caribbean

US Foreign Policy in Latin America and the Caribbean

Pastor, R.A. & Long, T. (2010). The Cold War and its Aftermath in the Americas: The Search

for a Synthetic Interpretation of U.S. Policy. Latin American Research Review, 45(3), 261-273.

Pastor and Long conducted a search of synthetic interpretation of the United States foreign policy in Latin America and the Caribbean in the aftermath of the Cold War through examining existing literature of U.S. foreign policy in the Americas. This search was carried out on the premise that some scholars have focused on understanding U.S. foreign policy and inter-American relations in the aftermath of the Cold War. This analysis is carried out on the premise that numerous books and review essays have been developed to examine the Americas in the post-Cold War era and current or future issues in the inter-American agenda. The focus of this article is to examine how U.S. foreign policy in Latin America and the Caribbean has been characterized by neglect and whether the policy focuses on future issues in inter-American relations. Therefore, the thesis of the article is that literature on U.S. foreign policy in the Americas should be synthesized in light of future issues in…… [Read More]

Colonial Latin America

Born to Die

Why did the native populations, such as the Incas and the Aztecs, appear to be, not equals to be met with military and diplomatic force, but as victims born to die in the eyes of the invading European powers? Why were they not feared, despite the extensive technological capacities of their civilizations, and the detailed political and religious theology these civilizations created? Simply put, the invading Europeans came to regard them as sick and ailing bodies of a sick and ailing body politic, born to die because of their lack of immunity to European diseases, even more than European firearms.

The book Born to Die thus presents the provoking thesis that disease was the major cause of the European power's seemingly never-ending successes of colonial successes and conquests in Latin America, rather than these nation's prowess in military conquest. In some cases, the nations had already been decimated even before the full military capacity of the European powers had been launched. With such a small and relatively technically ill equipped population, no contest resulted in overwhelming conquest.

Although the author of the book admits that technological military superiority on the part of the invading Europeans thus did…… [Read More]

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New Territories Laboratories for Design Craft and Art in Latin America

Ceramics- exhibition review (New Territories exhibit)

Exhibition critique:

New Territories: Laboratories for Design, Craft and Art in Latin America

If a viewer were to initially wander into the exhibition New Territories: Laboratories for Design, Craft and Art in Latin America, he or she might initially believe that the Museum of Art and Design (MAD) was showcasing a catalogue of traditional works from Latin America. However, upon closer examination, New Territories is actually a series of modern pieces by contemporary artists from the region who make use of techniques such as appropriation and pastiche of traditional designs. These works are reconfigurations of traditional images, hence the expression of 'new territories' in their output.

For example, Les Crayons Noirs (in collaboration with Felipe (Flip) Yung, Herbert Baglione, Sesper, and Thais Beltrame) makes use of traditional images and ways of rendering the human body common to many Latin American traditional works and transposes it into three-dimensional graffiti-like structures and onto porcelain. Bombe has an artisanal look and is created with spray paint (the French term for making graffiti with a spray can is to 'bomb') and porcelain. Images of traditional Brazilian design are fused with traditional 'high' art surfaces as well as onto…… [Read More]

Latin American Politics

Latin American Politics

United States-Latin American relations have under went many changes during the 20th century, a time of intense U.S. involvement in the region. Describe the shifts as evidence by Gunboat Diplomacy, Good Neighbor Policy, Alliance for Progress, and The Reagan Doctrine. Explain the reasons behind each shift and also the underlying consistencies of U.S. Policy.

Because of its geographic proximity to the United States, Latin America has been a key concern for the United States. In the twentieth century, the U.S. intervened in Latin America to keep peace in its countries, build a transcontinental canal, attend to economic interests, and keep communism from invading the world. The United States used its political and economic superiority and its strong military force to work toward these goals.

During the late 19th century, the United States declared victory over the Spanish empire, establishing the nation's status as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. When Theodore Roosevelt became president, the U.S. started to intervene more in affairs throughout the Caribbean. Roosevelt did not think that Latin Americans were capable of governing themselves. In 1903, the U.S. helped Panama cut its ties with Cuba and began building the Panama Canal. The president…… [Read More]

Americas Interests & Involvement in

..) the subsequent U.S. occupation of the island tied its economy ever closed to the United States as U.S. military governors promulgated laws giving U.S. firms concessionary access to the Cuban market. By the late 1920s U.S. firms controlled 75% of the sugar industry and most of the mines, railroads, and public utilities." (Leogrande and Thomas, 2002, 325-6)

The economic dependence on the United States and in particular the high degree of American control over the Cuban industry and natural resources determined a massive reaction even at the social level. For the public in Cuba, the massive U.S. presence represented the symbol of the colonial rule identified with the previous Spanish rule. From this point-of-view after the gaining of independence, in Cuba a certain sense of opposition towards the U.S. was created. At the same time, one of the most obvious areas of the social aspect which saw the increased influence of the U.S. was the American attempt to reconsider the colonies and their social structure. In this sense, they tried to substitute most of the Spanish names and ways of organization not with local ones but rather with the ones familiar to the American side.

As part of the…… [Read More]

America at War 1865-Present a Survey of

America at War 1865-Present

A Survey of America at War from 1865 to Present

Since the Civil War, America has seldom seen a generation of peace. In fact, a nonstop succession of wars has kept what Eisenhower termed "the military industrial complex" in lucrative business. From the Indian Wars to the World Wars to the Cold War to the war on Terror, Americana has expanded its foothold as an imperial power every step of the way -- even when isolationism appeared to be momentarily in vogue following World War I. This paper will look at the history of the progression of war in America from 1865 to present, showing how that history -- through social, economic, literary, political, and religious changes -- has both shaped and been shaped by American foreign and domestic policy.

Unit Once: 1865-1876

The Civil War had just ended on the home front, but that did not mean that America was at peace in 1865. Domestically, the effects of the bloodiest war on American soil were still felt in war-ravaged southern states, now crippled beyond measure. Yet, with the desire to expand its borders westward, the country proceeded to continue to wage war against the Native…… [Read More]

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America as a Multinational Society

In years before, America was a collection of Chinese, Germans, Italians, Scots, Croats, etc., all craving freedom. Today, even the simple concept of an English-speaking nation is fading off the continent. In the past, immigrants were taught in English in the public schools. In America today, children are taught in German, Italian, Polish, and 108 other languages and dialects. Most of these schools are funded by 139 million federal dollars. "The linguist's egalitarian attitude toward dialect has evolved into the multicultural notion that dialect as a cultural feature is part of one's identity as a member of that culture."

Due to their ethnic or cultural heterogeneity, multiethnic societies in general are more fragile and have a higher risk of conflicts. In the worst case such conflicts can cause the breakdown of these societies. Recent examples of this were the violent breakdown of Yugoslavia and the peaceful separation of Czechoslovakia. Forced mixture or coexistence of ethnically different populations might be the reason for the outbreak of nationalistic and racist tendencies, which over the years can become so strong that they are able to destroy a multiethnic society.

Until recently, emigrants in the United States longed for admittance in society's mainstream. Now…… [Read More]

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America's International Relations Americanization and Anti-Americanism

Pictures on the news of American flags being burned seem to appear more often than they used to. Perhaps my generation just isn't used to having our nation criticized to the extent that it has been since our response to September 11; we all know there have been anti-American protests in the past, that flags have been burned and protests against certain American military endeavors waged. Anti-Americanism has many definitions and encompasses many things, but "new" is not an applicable descriptor. Sentiments deriding American values, attitudes, and actions have existed since the establishment of the colonies, expressed in a variety of formats and with various causes. What has changed is not the existence of anti-Americanism, but what it means for the nation in international relations today.

This essay will examine anti-Americanism: first, its history and various forms throughout the world; at the same time, the causes of anti-American sentiment will be examined, both historically and currently, as the causes have changed during the different periods of international relations. After this explanation of the history and sources of anti-Americanism, we will briefly examine how this affects the United States and its foreign policy in our current international climate, and whether the…… [Read More]

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Why Did America Embrace the United Nations'so Enthusiastically Yet Reject the League of Nations

America, United Nations and the League of Nations

All through its continuation, The National Interest of the United States of America has endeavored to recognize and assess the rational structures that motivate American Foreign-policy production. All efforts to devise a proper tactical political policy have constantly escorted, back to the invariable foundation: the recognition of national objectives, goals, and intents. Successive American administrations have believed that foreign policy is devoid of implication unless it points in the direction of the achievement of America's national objectives.

Therefore, the inevitable prerequisite to a balanced assessment of the usage of the United Nations and the League of Nations is to study the aims and intents of American foreign policy during that time. The paper has made an attempt to recognize the connection between the American National Interest and the utility of these two organizations.

America's Rejection to support the League of Nations

The Historical Background

The League of Nations was an international association established following the World War 1 with objectives of diminishing weapons, resolving arguments amid countries and sustaining living conditions of their people, however, the League showed that it had been incompetent of stopping violence by the Fascist nations. The United…… [Read More]

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America's Cuban Conundrum the Helms-Burton Act and

America's Cuban Conundrum

The Helms-Burton Act and the Cuban-American Trade Relations

The United States and Cuba have had increased amounts of hostility toward each other present in their relations ever since the Cuban revolution. Not only did Cuba nationalize property held by U.S. interests during the revolution, but also Cuba became an ally to Russia during the Cold War; which was critical to the Soviet strategy since Cuba is in close proximity to the U.S. Both actions consequently undermined the stated values of the American free-market system in regards to America's corporate holdings in the country. This tension has furthermore been manifested by blatantly vocal opposition on both sides of the dispute. In this paper such ongoing tension will be illustrated by one of the most timely and extreme examples of hostility in foreign relations as well as propose an avenue for future trade arrangements.

Cuban Pretexts for Military Action

In 1991 a group formed, known as Brothers to the Rescue, which was based in Miami and composed of Cuban exiles (Brothers to the Resue, 2010). This group stands in strong opposition to the Cuban government and conducts aerial search missions to identify refugee rafters fleeing from Cuba. However, such…… [Read More]

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America and the Bay of

One of the best points is brought forth by Higgins, who writes that an estimated force of 1500 men were sent to take on no less than 25,000 Cubans (Higgins 1987). "In the end, of approximately 1300 men who actually landed on the beaches from the Brigade, almost 1200 were captured and about 100 killed in combat (Higgins 149). The Brigade, if they failed, were expected to escape into the protected areas that connected to the Bay of Pigs; when in fact those areas, the conditions of the terrain, the poor training and preparation of the Brigade, made such escape impossible (Higgins 149).

Years later, declassified papers and tapes from the White House would lend insight into the fiasco, but not clarity. One thing that was evidenced from the White House tapes is that the Bay of Pigs continued to be a source of humiliation and annoyance to President Kennedy (Lawrence 2002). Enough so that the incident greatly impacted the President's decisions about Laos and Vietnam (Chomsky 1993).

Works Cited www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105514152

Blight, James G. And Peter Kornbluh, eds. 1999. Politics of Illusion: The Bay of Pigs Invasion Reexamined. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105514456.

A www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24098536

Chomsky, Noam. 1993. Rethinking Camelot:…… [Read More]

Bibliography:

America One Enduring Aspect of

Although Friedman claims that the use of religion as a common bond among early Americans is no longer relevant, there are scores of Americans who still believe that the nation is essentially a Christian one. The identity of Tea Party people is inextricably tied into an identity that may seem outmoded to many Americans. Yet to the Tea Party, their identity is more American than any apple pie.

Most Americans throughout most of American history considered it perfectly fine to deny half the (white) population the right to vote on the basis of gender. Being female was considered a handicap, which systematically denied women the right to be Americans even if they identified with the culture of the United States. Asian men who worked on the railroads in nineteenth century America were not even permitted to start families because their Otherness was too much for the WASP majority. Now, Asians proudly proclaim their American-ness through a hyphenated designation. The identity of Americans changes according to social norms. Now that women are considered human beings, women can enjoy the full rights and privileges of citizenship. Now that Asians are considered worthy of American citizenship, both men and women can be citizens…… [Read More]

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Latin America Studies

Inca and Spanish ideas regarding the roles of females and males

This paper presents a detailed description and comparison of the Inca and Spanish ideas regarding the roles of females and males. The writer uses examples of similarities and differences to illustrate the point.

TAKING STEPS BACKWARDS

As the world continues to globalize, mankind pats itself on the back and believes that it continues to move in a forward motion. All one has to do is observe the equality of the sexes today to know that the world has come a long way from the old days. However when one studies the history of two cultures, the Spanish and the Incas one discovers that a long ago and forgotten civilization had as much if not more gender equality than has ever happened since without a fight. The Inca society was so far ahead of its time when it came to he roles of men and women that the world has not yet caught up thousands of years later.

The Spanish civilization had many similarities but over all it was far less apt to treat the genders with the same level of respect or position than the Incas did.

In the…… [Read More]

History of Film in Latin

After some ineffective negotiating with the police both Sandro and a passenger on board of the bus get killed.

The main concept of the movie revolves around the unjust system; the blind Brazilian authorities that single-handedly create criminals by neglecting and aggressing most of the poor people instead of creating ways of improving their lives.

Favela Rising" is yet another motion picture intended to expose the truth concerning the Latin-American slums. The action again takes place in Rio de Janeiro, but the intriguing part about the film is that it is a documentary which tells the story of Anderson Sa, a former drug dealer from the Vigario Geral district.

Anderson had been living in a favela in Rio de Janeiro when he heard that his brother has been accidentally shot in the middle of a gang war. Just as the characters in the previous movies and in Carolina's book, Anderson was determined to get away from the atrocities happening in his neighborhood. Being a wonderful singer, he formed the Afro-Reggae band and hoped that his music and its lyrics would make people turn against their oppressors. However, before becoming a singer, Anderson had to comply with his condition and had…… [Read More]

Bibliography:

Kozloff Nikolas Revolution South America

And there is also a clear, seductive appeal of U.S. culture which Kozloff also does not deny. As much as Chavez and company may opposed globalization, there is no escaping the new global economy.

Kozloff's book is written from an unapologetically leftist stance. He is a frequent contributor to The Huffington Post, and Revolution! was mainly reviewed by leftist magazines and bloggers. However, it offers an important counterweight to the commonly-expressed idea that socialism is dead. The book is grounded in specificity and historically contextualizes each individual leftist movement. Despite the fact that it focuses on Venezuela, it does not make sweeping generalizations about the region based upon this specific example. Kozloff is careful to point out the unique features of Venezuela, such as the nation's vast oil wealth.

Another of the book's strengths is the fact that it presents history from a Latin American perspective, rather than a U.S. perspective. It forces the reader to see the revolutions, not from the view of an American who might be suspicious of socialism, but from nations which have chiasmic divides between the haves and the have-nots. While Chavez's own abuses of power are noted, Kozloff makes the reader understand why to…… [Read More]

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Business in South America Business

This situation influenced populists in Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador, which diminished their power in the region. Chavez' constitutional reform proposition was rejected by referendum, showing that the citizens of Venezuela desire a market-based democracy. In such conditions, it is only a matter of time until this democracy will be installed in the region.

The GDP in South America is expected to continue its ascending direction, reaching a 4.3% growth rate this year (Latin Business Chronicle, 2008). Inflation is expected to remain relatively constant in the next period of time. In certain regions in South America inflation is expected to decrease.

Given the conditions mentioned above, it is clear that South America will develop into investors' favorite destinations. The most important advantages of the region consist in: political stability in most regions, economic stability, government policies, and economic growth.

However, investors should think very carefully how much they are willing to invest in South America. The most important challenges in the region consist in: currency fluctuations, language barriers, and distance, which can cause significantly increased costs. Also, the political environment continues to be a problem in certain regions of South America. Regarding oil business prospects, the industry is expected to continue…… [Read More]

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Women in Central America Social

Companies that are seeking to enter this market are likely to find it a difficult undertaking because the society remains backward. A company cannot sell products to a people who have no money, and that is the situation in China today. It is also the situation in Central America, but Central America would be much more responsive to the entry of outside companies offering funds for development and providing jobs for the people than is China. Helping develop the society, and especially including more women in the process, could also help with the difficult task of reducing the stranglehold some authoritarian regimes still have. Those regimes might be resistant, but they are also eager to have external investment that would benefit them. Business has to make certain that investment also benefits the people and contributes to change in a positive direction.

One of the women who helped bring the plight of women in Central America to light was Rigoberto Menchu, who wrote her own account of working in the coffee fields and of the conditions that prevailed there. Her work has been followed up by many other women, including many of the nuns who have fought back against the injustices…… [Read More]

Works Cited:

Middle America

Crime and Violence in Mexico

Introduction recent study by the World Bank reveals that Mexico has become one of the most violent and crime-ridden regions in the world (Hart). After a slight decrease in the 1960's, the report shows that the murder rate has increased again in the 1990's to more than 16,000 murders per year (p. 111-113). The country's homicide rate was double that of the United States, with 18 killings for every 100,000 people.

Over the past few decades, Mexico's population has increased and urban poverty levels have risen. As a result of these two factors, Mexico has seen a significant increase in crime and violence. Residents have resorted to illegal means of making money, including drug rings and street crime, as the country struggled to incorporate a capitalist system.

A recent study from the Citizen's Institute for the Study of Insecurity reveals that 4.2 million Mexicans were victims of crime in 2001 (Ortega). Ninety-two percent of the crimes were robberies, and the damages totaled $4.9 billion. Of these crimes, 75% of the victims did not tell the authorities and only 11% of the criminals were convicted.

Most of the people who did not report the crimes said…… [Read More]

Great Wall of America A Bad Idea

Great Wall of America? A Bad Idea.

It is widely known that the United States is a country of immigrants. The country's indigenous population constitutes a tiny miniscule of its population, while the rest came mostly from Europe, Latin America, and other parts of the world. Nevertheless, immigration to the United States has always been a divisive and controversial issue. In the nineteenth century, nativist feelings among the WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) made the East Coast a very inhospitable place for Catholic Irish immigrants, while the legislators in the West Coast targeted immigrants and migrants from the Far East, singling out the Chinese in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 ("Chinese Exclusion Act"). Today, cross-border movement of people through the southern border of the United States has become a hotly debated issue for ordinary folks, legislators, anti-terrorist law enforcement agencies, Congressmen and Congresswomen as well as Presidential candidates. Criticizing the current state of border control as some form of "open border anarchy," many conservative politicians -- in collaboration with numerous so-called "liberals" -- argue that the border with Mexico should be sealed with a wall. Dubbed "The Great Wall of America," the proposed wall, however, is a bad idea as…… [Read More]

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CRM in the Latin American

The crux of his research focused on the technological aspects of CRM supporting is the essence of rising above all these other forms of unwanted communication and staying relevant for the long-term to prospects and customers.

Research Design

The proposed research design will focus on interviewing approximately 500 customers of Latin American tourism providers in the last twelve months and assessing their relative levels of satisfaction using a survey designed using the SERVQUAL methodology. Using a series of questions included in the SERVQUAL instrument to focus on the ten aspects of service quality including reliability, responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, understanding the customer and tangibles of service. Consistent with the goal of this study to focus on the gap between service delivery ad expectations (Huang, Sarigllu, 2008) the research design will be stratified by originating nation of the respondent. This stratification of responded by country will be useful in using Hofstede Cultural Dimensions (Blodgett, Bakir, Rose, 2008).

Methodology

Relying on Simple Random Sampling to stratify the respondents across the top ten nations that have visitors to Latin America as tourists in 2008, the research methodology seeks to be representative to those regions of the world who have cultural…… [Read More]

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System of Castas Latin American History

System of castas/Latin American History

Among many contributions of Mexico to the present American culture few are considered more significant than the concept of Mestizaje referring to the racial and cultural and synthesis. Mexico came out to be a fusion of the old and new world, particularly after the Spanish invasion during 16th century. Ever since the inception of the conquest the interracial sexual unions among Indians, Europeans, Africans and Asians appeared common, however, interracial marriage was allowed only during the later half of the 17th century. The frightened white elite treatened of the growing tide of Castas -- many racially mixed people- during 18th century formulated a caste system in order to institute status distinctions between the sub-groups so as to divide them and strengthen the Spaniards' sense of their own exclusivity. (An Unsettling Racial Score Card)

The commissioned paintings of many groups of castas have remained to be the evidence illustrating this. Presently the Los Angeles County Museum of Art is representing more than hundreds of the genre including a rare complete set in the gallery- 'Inventing Race: Casta Painting and Eighteenth-Century Mexico'. The Casta paintings are mostly perverse family portraits representing the race of the mother, father…… [Read More]

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