Kant's refutation of the Ontological
Proof of God's Existence

Kant' Refutation

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant set out a framework intended to refute the ontological argument. It is said that the critique was directed at Descartes and Leibniz. And oddly, Pierre Gassendi expected such a criticism from Kant, even going so far as to write about it in his Objections to Descartes' Meditations. Kant's framework consisted of a number of interrelated but separate arguments.

Three main arguments are the backbone of Kant's refutation of the ontological argument. Primary is the argument that existence, or being, is not a real predicate. Second, Kant argues that it is possible to deny the subject and the predicate of a judgment in order to avoid contradiction. Kant theorizes that there are no claims about existence that can be termed analytic -- that is to say, tautological, as a result of the predicate expressing something…...

McCloskey's refutation of te arguments of existence of God and illustration of ow God (and metapysics) can be perceived in different ways and tat tis precludes us from making any final judgments regarding His existence and manner of rulersip.
Te Cosmological argument maintains tat God's existence can be deduced from te fact tat every act of creation needs an initiator. Te world ad a beginning -- after all it is an act of creation -- someone ad to create it. Tis someone was God.

Tere are various classical arguments against te cosmological arguments but McCloskey's refutation is straigt and to te point: te world sows cruelty and unjustness. Positing tat te world as a creator, we ten inferentially transfer tese attributes to te Creator and posit tat He in turn is unjust and cruel. Not muc ope for a believer and certainly someting tat doesn't make us wis to accept te…...

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http://www.iep.utm.edu/design/ 

James W. The Varieties of Religious Experience

 http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/WJAMES/toc.html

Before "individual murders" were used to terrorize "esterners" and their "lackeys" into submission. (hite, 2002, p.114) These individuals were not "inflamed" with a specific revolutionary passion, a la Che Guevara, but possessed of a more diffuse anger, with a nostalgic gaze upon the past, paradise like structure of Islamic unreality. But unlike the 'tupamaros' the fear such terrorism instigates in people is not the fear of walking the street everyday. These new factors influence the urban model by making fear both more diffuse, and also more concentrated not upon every day events, but on travel and upon respected institutions.
In the new model, what seems most safe and impregnable, like governmental and financial institutions, now seem most destabilized, reducing the overall level of confidence in the structures and institutions of governance and one's system of life. The tupamaros saw social violence as a way of enacting social change -- the…...

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Works Cited

White, Jonathan. (2002) Terrorism: An Introduction.

Following Aquinas's argumentation, we will reasonably ask ourselves, at a certain point, what the cause of what was considered to be the First Cause is. However, with the temporal cause, we may not assume an extra cause, because there will have been no prior time at which this cause may have occurred. As such, this "definition implies that the universe cannot be caused to begin to exist since there is no earlier time at which the cause could occur."
Resuming, in order to reject the argument of efficient causation summarized by Aquinas, we would need to either assume that all objects are contingent (first of Russell's argumentations) or to assume that there was a temporal cause, in the sense that the First Cause simply could not have existed because there was no prior time.

ibliography

1. Russell, ertrand. Why I am not a Theist. On the Internet at http://jumper52.cjb.cc/russell.htm

2. Saint Thomas Aquinas.…...

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Bibliography

1. Russell, Bertrand. Why I am not a Theist. On the Internet at http://jumper52.cjb.cc/russell.htm

2. Saint Thomas Aquinas. The Existence of God. On the Internet at http://jumper52.cjb.cc/aquinas.htm

3. Smith, Quentin. CAUSATION and the LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY of a DIVINE CAUSE (1996). Philosophical Topics, Volume 21, Number 1, Spring 1996, pp. 169-191. On the Internet at  http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/quentin_smith/causation.html 

4. Depoe, John. DOES the COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENTREALLY ASSUME the ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT?. Baylor University. December 2002. Excellent description on Russell's failed refutations. On the Internet at www.johndepoe.com/cosmo_argument.pdf

This is really the extent of Gorgias attempting to remove himself from Socrates' argument, but instead, pulls him deeper into the intellectual trap, for Gorgias has only one misgiving about the entire situation . . . he fears that the crowd of onlookers might be disinterested in two men trying to outdo each other in being wrong (458b-c). Thus, Gorgias proves two things: he cannot intellectually handle a multi-layered discussion and he needs an audience in order to perform -- the basics of dialog and intellectual discourse are lost upon him. If then, Gorgias needs an audience, Socrates must be correct in that rhetoric is a craft -- designed not for serious intellectual combat, but for pure entertainment value.
2.Explain and critically evaluate Socrates reasoning for the apparently preposterous claim that tyrants like orators have no great power (Gorgias 466a-468e). You should make sure that you take into account Socrates…...

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REFERENCES

Plato. Translated and revised by E.R. Dodds. (2003). Gorgias. Oxford University Press.

Socrates
In Euthyphro, Socrates' questioning centers on discovering the true definition of piety -- but it is geared towards arriving at a sense of reasonable judgment (after all, he himself is about to go before the judges, and he would like to receive a judgment that is reasonable from them). hat he meets in Euthyphro is willfulness and subjectivity. Socrates attempts to show why it is important to remain objective about the law and to what extent we can judge others: in fact, it is Socrates who is searching for an objective standard -- an absolute outside himself by which he may judge: "Tell me what is the nature of this idea, and then I shall have a standard to which I may look, and by which I may measure actions" (6e). Euthyphro happily engages in the dialogue and states that "piety, then, is that which is dear to the gods,…...

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Works Cited

Plato. "Euthyphro." Internet Classics Archive. Web. 14 May 2012.

Plato. "Apology." Internet Classics Archive. Web. 14 May 2012.

Plato. "Crito." Internet Classics Archive. Web. 14 May 2012.

Plato. "Gorgias." Internet Classics Archive. Web. 14 May 2012.

Citizens Should Be Allowed to Carry Concealed Handguns
First Paragraph

Gun control laws punish the innocent.

Second Paragraph

Gun control laws lower the crime rate.

Third Paragraph refutation paragraph

Rough Draft - Citizens Should be Allowed to Carry Concealed Handguns

Gun control laws are a hot topic of controversy. Currently, there is not enough legislation that supports the right for people to carry handguns.

Thesis Statement) There should be appropriate legislation and laws passed to allow for citizens to carry concealed handguns.

Gun control laws punish the innocent.) Many people feel that in order to prevent criminals from using guns that improved legislation should be passed to provide tougher laws which restrict the purchase of a handgun and stricter punishment if the laws are broken. People who are against stricter gun control laws feel that the average citizens' constitutional rights would be invaded. To allow citizens the right to carry concealed handguns will discourage violent crimes. Many states have…...

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2nd paragraph-(Lowers crime rate). Currently there are 31 states that have enacted "shall issue" concealed weapon laws. The rest of the states should also adopt this legislation and allow citizens to carry concealed weapons. Laws to allowed concealed weapon permits to anyone over 21 who has completed a gun-safety program, has no criminal record, and is mentally sound. Statistics prove the safety of men, women, and minorities increase when laws allow for concealed weapons. A study shows that when state concealed-handgun laws went into effect in a county, murders fell by about 8%, rapes fell by 5%, and aggravated assaults fell by 7%. Lott (1997) states that criminals are less likely to attack a weaker victim, such as a woman or an elderly person, if there is a possibility that there might be a concealed weapon. JAMA reports studies which show a 15% drop in homicides in areas where adults are allowed to carry concealed weapons (Mitka, 1998).

3rd paragraph -- the (refutation paragraph). Thirty states have lenient concealed-weapons laws, but only in Vermont can anyone carry a hidden handgun without a license or permit (U.S. News and World Report, 2003). Citizens should have the ability to carry a concealed weapon, but this action alone will not ensure their safety. Crimes will still happen and even those who carry handguns will not always act responsibly. However, by having the right to legally carry concealed weapons, people will be able to better protect themselves against the possibility of a fatal crime. The presented statistics from Lott's study show strength in the argument for use of concealed handguns and should at least give pause to those who oppose concealed handguns. Crime fighting methods that potentially offer over an eight percent drop in murder rates are difficult to ignore.

There will always be the debate concerning concealed handgun laws. Those supporting the stricter gun control laws will continue oppose legislation and lobby the government to restrict the use of handguns. However, with citizens being more concerned about their safety and the wave of increased terrorism there should be more support and better legislation to allow citizens the right to lawfully carry concealed

hen a president of the United States begins incorporating religious rhetoric into his speeches, alarm bells must sound. hen that same president allocates taxpayer monies to religious groups, then citizens should be experiencing widespread panic.
Bush's No Child Left Behind Act is no less frightening than the faith-based initiative. Hiding behind good intentions, the No Child Left Behind Act fails to take into account a major factor: reality. Jim Donlevy notes, "It simply is not reasonable to continue to identify thousands of failing schools throughout the United States and then to see through to completion the sanctions written into the Act." The Act includes provisions for annual testing for schools, with progress requirements in core subjects such as English, math and science. "The idea is to be sure that all students are learning at higher standards," (Donlevy). However, the Act demands too much too soon. Forcing some schools to shut…...

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Works Cited

Anders, Christopher E. 2001. They must remain separate. The World & I. Washington: Jul 2001.Vol.16, Iss. 7; pg. 55  http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=74767508&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=12334&RQT=309&VName=PQD .

Dobbins, James. 2005. Iraq: Winning the Unwinnable War. Foreign Affairs. New York: Jan/Feb 2005.Vol.84, Iss. 1; pg. 16  http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=7&did=805099671&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1114122900&clientId=12334 .

Donlevy, Jim. 2003. Teachers, Technology and Training: No Child Left Behind: Failing Schools and Future Directions. International Journal of Instructional Media. New York: 2003.Vol.30, Iss. 4; pg. 335, 4 pages  http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=549016431&sid=2&Fmt=3&clientId=12334&RQT=309&VName=PQD .

Patterson, Thomas E. We the People. 5th edition. McGraw-Hill.

More especially, neither observation nor reason can be described as a source of knowledge, in the sense in which they have been claimed to be sources of knowledge, down to the present day. (1962, p. 4).
Clearly, discerning "the truth" is a complicated endeavor in any setting, and applying rigid rules of analyses will not always succeed. This point is made by Thomas Kuhn (2000), who advises, "Does it really help to imagine that there is some one full, objective, true account of nature and that the proper measure of scientific achievement is the extent to which it brings us closer to that ultimate goal?"; according to Larmore (2004), Kuhn's answer was no, since "no Archimedean platform is available for the pursuit of science other than the historically situated one already in place" (p. 47).

Conclusion

The research showed that the search for what is true and knowable has received an enormous…...

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References

Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against method. London: New Left Books.

Kuhn, T.S. (2000). The road since structure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lamb, D., Munevar, G., & Preston, J. (2000). The worst enemy of science? Essays in memory of Paul Feyerabend. New York: Oxford University Press.

Polanyi, M. (1997). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy. London: Routledge.

Currently children and families who are in this country illegally are entitled to the following programs.

Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) nutrition program: Agency workers do not ask for a client's immigration status"(Benefits, 2006).

Outpatient medical care: Only at clinics designated as federally qualified health centers - those helping needy communities - where clients receive medical care if they demonstrate financial need "(Benefits, 2006).

Prenatal care: Only at federally qualified health centers"(Benefits, 2006).

Emergency medical care: Paid by Medicaid if patient shows financial need"(Benefits, 2006).

Labor and delivery care in hospitals: Paid by Medicaid if patient shows financial need (Benefits, 2006)."

Immunizations: Health departments and clinics generally do not ask for immigration status. They prefer to vaccinate as many people as possible to prevent disease outbreaks (Benefits, 2006)."

Business license: The state does not ask for proof of immigration status.

Public defender: equired by the U.S. Constitution for those charged with criminal offenses (not available in civil court…...

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References

____. Benefits off-limits to illegals Undocumented can get only limited range of taxpayer-funded services." Denver Rocky Mountain News (2006)

Brinkley, John. "ILLEGAL IMMIGRANT NUMBERS UP STATE'S UNDOCUMENTED POPULATION GREW BY 28.6% FROM 1992-96" Denver Rocky Mountain News (2007)

Cohn, Dvera. "Report Details Growth in Illegal Migration; Undocumented Immigrants Outnumbered Legal Ones From 2000 to 2004, Study Says." The Washington Post; (2005)

Fears, Darryl. "For Illegal Immigrants, Some Aid Is Too Risky; Fears Abound as Government Won't Promise Immunity From Deportation." The Washington Post; (2005)

Evolution be Taught in Schools?
Introduction / Thesis (Part One)

The debate between those that believe in creationism -- or "intelligent design," a refined offshoot of the creationism theory -- and those who believe in the science of evolution, spilled over into the schools in the United States many years ago. Conservative Christians and others who are in denial vis-a-vis Charles Darwin's research and theory argue that at the very least their religious-based theories should be placed side-by-side in public school textbooks. Scientists, biologists, teachers, scholars and others who accept the empirical nature of scientific evolution have battled to keep creationism and intelligent design (ID) out of the science textbooks -- with some degree of success albeit in certain conservative communities and states politicians and school board members have overruled logic by those insisting that ID be part of science textbooks. Some objective scholarship sees this debate as another example of…...

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Works Cited

Antolin, Michael F., and Herbers, Joan M. (2001). Perspective: Evolution's Struggle for Existence in America's Public Schools. International Journal of Organic Evolution, 55(12),

2379-2388.

Armenta, Tony, and Lane, Kenneth E. (2010). Tennessee to Texas: Tracing the Evolution

Controversy in Public Education. The Clearing House, 86(3), 76-79.

Euthyphro and Piety
An Analysis of Euthyphro with an Alternative Definition of Piety

Euthyphro gives three definitions of piety which fail to satisfy Socrates. Socrates' goal in this dialogue is to reveal the shallowness of Euythyphro's argument and obtain a better understanding of truth. In other words, Socrates' objective is the same as always: To point out, as udebusch (1999) states, "that one who is aware of one's ignorance is in a better position to learn the truth than one taking oneself to know" (p. 13). This paper will provide Euthyphro's three definitions of piety, Socrates' refutations, my own definition of piety and what I think Socrates' response would be to it.

1st Definition

Piety, Euthyphro explains in his first definition to Socrates, is "doing as I am doing; that is to say, prosecuting any one who is guilty of murder, sacrilege, or of similar crime -- whether he be your father or mother,…...

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Reference List

Napolitano, A. (2010). Lies the Government Told You. Nashville, TN: Thomas

Nelson.

Plato. (n.d.). Last Days of Socrates. Retrieved from  http://socrates.clarke.edu/ 

Rudebusch, G. (1999). Socrates, Pleasure, and Value. UK: Oxford University Press.

Winston Smith is the hero of the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984) by George Orwell. Winston's ultimate failing is not the failing of a human being, instead it is a symbol of the ultimate power of the society.
Persuasive technique - definition, personal observation)

In literary terms a hero can be vaguely defined as the main character. However, further to this the character needs to be superior, of good character or extraordinary in some way (aldick 98). Winston Smith is the main character in 1984 and he is extraordinary. What is most important in understanding this is realizing that we must not compare Winston with modern man in this society, but with modern man in the society of 1984. This is one of the key aspects to understanding, to first understand the society he is existing in. This society is one where the people are completely controlled, with the people having no freedom…...

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Bibliography

Baldick, C. Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Gardner, A. George Orwell. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1987.

Orwell, G. Nineteen Eighty-Four. London: Penguin Books, 1989.

hile these are some of the more famous elements of rhetorical theory, they do not require extensive discussion here for two reasons. Firstly, they are fairly well-known. Secondly, and more importantly, they actually do not provide much insight into the uses of rhetoric, because Aristotle implicitly inserts an ethics into his discussion of rhetoric that precludes it from having as robust an application to the real world as would be desired, due to the fact that rhetoric does not equally "target the emotional and rational attitudes and convictions" of the audience (Martina 567). In particular, Aristotle's theory suffers from assumptions regarding human beings receptivity to logic and a belief that rhetoric is ultimately "a means of attaining truth and knowledge" (Hugenberg 1). In fact, rhetoric is more often than not deployed as a means of avoiding or otherwise obscuring the truth, and but Aristotle's moralizing attitude precludes him from…...

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Works Cited

Archer, Lauren Renel. "The Rightful Place of Science: Understanding the Intersection of Rhetoric, Politics, and Science in President Obama's First 100 Days." Communication,

2010. United States -- Colorado: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT).

Aristotle. On Rhetoric: Book 1. 29-53.

Aristotle. On Rhetoric: Book 2. 118-191.

Buddhism vs. Quine vs. Crowley
The research intends to compare Buddhism, vs. Quine vs. Crowley by examining some of the philosophy put across by the two Buddhist and other two contemporary philosophers. The research will spell out each philosophy one by one giving each a critical analysis and interpretation. The research intends to start by looking at Vasubandhu's Indian Buddhist Theory to be followed by the other Buddhism philosophy of Nagarjuna known as the philosophy of the middle way of Persons. The third and the fourth section will look at Quine's relativism, and Crowley's idea of crossing the abyss respectively. Lastly after a thorough look at each of the four philosophies the conclusion will give the comparison between each of the philosophy so as to satisfy the objective of the research.

Vasubandhu's Indian Buddhist Theory of Persons

Vasubandhu own contribution is the refutation or proving of the theory of self to be untrue,…...

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Work cited

Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich the World of Buddhism: Thames & Hudson, 1984.

David Kalupahana, (Ed) Nagarjuna, and Nagarjuna: Albany: State University Press 1986.

Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.

Donath, Dorothy C. Buddhism for the West: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajray-na; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day. Julian Press, 1971.

I. Introduction
A. Explanation of the importance of high school sports
B. Statement of thesis- Despite their benefits, there are several cases against high school sports

II. Case #1: Injuries
A. Statistics on the number of injuries in high school sports
B. Examples of serious injuries from sports
C. Discussion on the long-term effects of these injuries

III. Case #2: Academic impacts
A. Research on the correlation between sports participation and academic performance
B. Argument against the time commitment of sports
C. Discussion on the potential for sports to distract from academics

IV. Case #3: Funding and inequality
A. Disparities in funding for....

Key Components of an Effective Outline for Thorough Analysis

An outline is a structured roadmap that guides the development and organization of an analytical essay or project. It serves as a blueprint, ensuring logical flow, clear structure, and comprehensive coverage of the topic. An effective outline should include the following key components:

I. Introduction

Thesis Statement: A clear and concise statement that presents the central argument or perspective to be analyzed.
Background Information: Provide context and necessary information to establish a foundation for the analysis.
Scope and Limitations: Define the parameters of the analysis, outlining what will and will not be covered.

II.....

Criteria for Evaluating Claims and Contentions in a Debate or Discussion

When evaluating the merit of claims and contentions presented in a debate or discussion, it is crucial to employ a rigorous set of criteria to ensure objectivity and fairness. These criteria serve as guideposts in assessing the validity, relevance, and strength of the arguments presented. Here are some key criteria to consider:

1. Validity:

Claims and contentions should be based on sound reasoning and evidence. They should not rely on fallacies, circular arguments, or unsupported assumptions.

Logical consistency: Arguments should be free from logical contradictions and follow a logical structure.
Empirical evidence:....

1. The Power of Persuasion: A Comprehensive Guide to Argumentative Essay Writing

2. Cracking the Argumentative Essay Code: Strategies for Effective Persuasion

3. The Art of Argumentation: A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Convincing Essays

4. The Anatomy of an Argumentative Essay: Crafting a Cohesive and Persuasive Structure

5. Master the Art of Thesis Development: Formulating a Powerful and Defensible Claim

6. Evidence and Argument: The Pillars of Persuasive Writing

7. The Rhetorical Triangle in Argumentative Writing: Understanding Audience, Purpose, and Context

8. Logical Fallacies: The Pitfalls to Avoid in Argumentative Essays

9. Ethical Considerations in Argumentative Writing: Maintaining Integrity and Civility

10. Sharpening Your Argumentative Skills: Practice Prompts and....