Agricultural Innovations
The Middle ages were quite fruitful in inventing a number of discoveries that include the invention of the wheels, the invention of the plow, the harnessing the power of animals to pull wagons and plows and make their use for transportation, using the power of wind for sailboats, and the invention of writing and calendar (Ashcroft et al., 1989). These innovations collectively transformed the conditions of life for societies in the middle ages. These innovations had great effect in increasing the wealth of the population and developing complex social organizations. Although all of the innovations mentioned above were important, the plow was considered as the greatest potential for transforming social and cultural change (Duerr et al., 1985). It made the use of the permanent cultivation possible in a greater variety of soils, and thereby led to the widespread replacement of horticulture by agriculture. It also facilitated the harnessing of animal energy that showed the way to increased the productivity. The use of plow agriculture spread by diffusion throughout the world.
Simple Agrarian Societies included several innovations, and the plow had the greatest potential for social and cultural change (Eckholm, 2000). The other innovations included the mechanics of controlling weeds and maintaining the fertility of the soil, facilitating the harnessing of animal energy, and leading to a large economic surplus and new and more complex forms of social organization. These innovations created market expansion, and offered the growth opportunities for merchants, or middlemen, who generated new needs and desires that stimulated economic activity and led to change of the cultural values (Kristeva, 1980). A major catalyst for innovation and change is the contact of one culture with another. In world history this contact has often been accompanied by extreme violence. But the desire to combat this violence has made certain military and technological adaptations and innovations a matter of survival.
Money was absent in the first simple agrarian societies. But there existed standardized media of exchange, such as barley. These exchanges were critical making each of the household sufficient...
Later, the exchanges were done with metal coins. However, these media became too unwieldy so the use of currency became common. The growth of economic systems had enormous implications for societal development. Money has always facilitated the movement, the exchange, and ultimately the production of goods and services of every kind.
Compared with simpler societies, advanced agrarian societies enjoyed a very productive technology (Lewis-Williams, 1980). Over the centuries quite a number of important innovations were made that include: the catapult, crossbow, gunpowder, horseshoes, stirrups, wood-turning lathe, auger, screw, wheelbarrow, rotary fan for ventilation, clock, spinning wheel, porcelain, printing, iron casting, magnet, water-powered mills, windmills, and the working steam engine, fly shuttle, spinning jenny, spinning machine, and various other power-driven tools (Feder and Slade, 1986). All of these innovations had dramatic impact on the agriculture- including tilling, watering, and transportation. The initial effect of the shift from horticulture to agriculture was an increase in food production. Societies that adopted the plow were able to produce more food in a given territory than those that relied on the hoe and digging stick (Fabian, 1985). This increase in productivity could be used either to expand the economic surplus or expand population, with both usually occurring (Feder and Slade, 1984). On of the single most important consequence of the greater economic surplus was further growth of the state and of the power of the governing class that controlled it.
The North-Eurasian nomadic tribes, although not a high culture like Greece, China, India, Iran and the Semitic peoples, acted as a catalyst in the development of peasant villages to city-states by exposing them to outside influences. Chief among these was their skill in struggle as horse-riders as well as from the chariot whose leading role from the east to the west has been affirmed.
The other causes of the diffusion of the innovation resulted through separate identifiable cultures were separate, independent entities, each with their own traditions, language, and…
