Brief psychology questions and answers

Psychology

Briefly describe the differences among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Give examples of how each might be used to influence behavior.

Positive reinforcement refers to a reward given for behavior that is desirable. For example, if a dog performs a trick on command the owner might offer a cookie. Parents might offer positive reinforcement for their kids' good grades by raising their allowance or taking them out to dinner. Negative reinforcement involves behavioral training using aversion techniques, used also to encourage a desirable behavior. For example, the parents refused to give their kids any allowance money unless they brought home good grades, or made the child do the dishes every day until they brought home an "A." Punishment, on the other hand, refers to behavioral conditioning using a negative stimulus in order to discourage undesirable behavior. For example, if a child comes home with an "F" on his or her report card the parents might punish him or her by grounding or withholding allowance money.

2. With regard to needs, how do men and women different in needs for affiliation and power?

Some research shows that men and women differ in terms of their needs for affiliation and power. It is possible that men need to feel more powerful and therefore seek positions of power and control, while women need more to be affiliated with power. Some women are attracted to men who are powerful. This may be due to evolutionary needs.

3. Briefly describe what is meant by nature vs. nurture debate in psychology. Discuss what position most developmental psychologists take on this debate and give an example of a developmental process that might be explained by both genetics and environment.

The nature vs. nurture debate is over whether an individual learns behaviors from their environment (nurture) or whether an individual is born with certain genetic traits and predispositions toward certain behaviors. Today, most developmental psychologists believe that nurture enhances nature: that while biology is important, environment probably trumps biology in most cases. One developmental process that can be explained by both genetics and environment is gender identity. Biology does affect certain aspects of gender and sexuality but environment and conditioning are very important factors in the development of an individual's gender identity.

4. How do maternal nutrition and alcohol use potentially affect the health of a fetus?

The heath of a fetus is directly related to maternal nutrition and fetal development is hindered by malnutrition or use of alcohol. Excess drinking by the mother can cause fetal alcohol syndrome, which may cause birth defects, mental health problems and hyperactivity in the child. Malnutrition can cause physical abnormalities as well; proper nutrition ensures the fetus will be able to acquire all the necessary nutrients for its growth and development.