How Alternative Certification Affects New Teacher Effectiveness

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………….

LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………….

Chapters

I. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………….

Overview ………………………………………………………….

Statement of the Problem ………………………………………….

Purpose of the Study ………………………………………………….

Conceptual Framework ………………………………………….

Research Questions ………………………………………………….

Rationale for the Study ………………………………………….

Significance of the Study ………………………………………….

Definition of Key Terms ………………………………………….

Organization of the Study ………………………………………….

Summary ………………………………………………………….

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ………………………………….

Overview ………………………………………………………….

Background ………………………………………………………….

Conceptual Framework ………………………………………….

Summary …………………………………………………………..

3. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………..

Overview ………………………………………………………….

Research Design ………………………………………………….

Participants …………………………………………………………..

Instrumentation …………………………………………………..

Data Collection …………………………………………………..

Data Analysis …………………………………………………………..

Limitations of the Study ……………………………………………

Summary …………………………………………………………….

Abstract

Today, education in the United States is faced with the triple whammy of a critical shortage of qualified teachers, high rates of attrition for new teachers and inadequate resources to support existing public schools. Therefore, the overarching purpose of this study is to help educational leaders identify and develop best practices to help both alternatively and traditionally certified teachers improve academic outcomes while reducing unplanned turnover rates by new teachers leaving the profession entirely. This purpose is aligned with the author’s field of study which involves teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and their ability to improve academic outcomes for their students. The focus of this study is the analysis of both traditionally and alternatively certified teachers’ efficacy beliefs toward serving students to improve student outcomes is my focus. Additionally, my research interest involves helping educational leaders determine the best recruitment and retention methods for teachers. In part, the research will examine specific recruitment and retention practices to determine effectiveness in reducing attrition rates.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Overview

At present, there are approximately 3.6 million public and private school teachers in the United States today (About NTSA, 2018) responsible for about 50.7 million school children in elementary and secondary schools (Fast facts, 2018). The economic costs of public school education in the United States are staggering, and the country currently spends an average of around $12,300 per elementary and secondary public school student each year, amounting to about $620 billion in federal and state spending annually (Pflaum, 2016). At present, the vast majority (90%) of these hundreds of billions of dollars is provided by the several states, with the federal government contributing the remaining 10% (Pflaum, 2016). Indeed, the United States spends more than almost any other industrialized country in the world today, trailing only Switzerland and Norway in per student expenditures (Plfaum, 2016). Unfortunately, the return on these enormous investments in taxpayer resources has been mediocre at best and absolutely dismal at worst, an issue that forms the problem of interest to this study which is discussed further below.

Statement of the Problem

Today, the United States is in an education crisis due to the convergence of several trends that have combined to create a perfect storm of challenges. For instance, depending on the source, between 20% and 50% of all new teachers in the United States leave the profession within 5 years and a significant percentage within the first year, due in part to low pay and overcrowded classrooms but also to a lack of preparedness for the entering the profession (Fensterwald, 2015). These pronounced rates of departure are far higher than for other professions, and the negative impact of these trends has been felt in the majority of public elementary and secondary schools across the country, but most especially already low-performing schools that are confronted with a steady parade of new teachers who do not stay at schools long enough to make a substantive difference in their students’ academic outcomes (Carroll & Fulton, 2009). Indeed, a seminal study by Darling-Hammond, Chung and Frelow (2002) found that teachers who felt unprepared left the profession at fully twice the rates of teachers who felt prepared to enter the classroom.

This lack of preparedness has further exacerbated the numerous difficulties that many new teachers experience when entering their classrooms for the first time, and far too many find themselves ill equipped to provide the high quality education students need and deserve in order to compete in the 21st century workplace. Furthermore, despite the monies being spent on education in America today, many new as well as seasoned teachers report they lack the institutional support and material resources they need to teach effectively. Moreover, teacher-student ratios in public elementary and secondary schools have increased from the 15.4 ratio in 2007 to a 16.1 ratio in Fall 2017 while the corresponding teacher-student ratios in private elementary and secondary school declined from the 2007 ratio of 13.0 to a 12.2 ratio by Fall 2017 (Fast facts, 2018).

Furthermore, new and experience teachers alike across the country report that they are being forced to resort to the Internet for reading materials because they do not have textbooks, and many spend their own money on basic classroom materials such as art supplies, paper and pencils and so forth. It is reasonable to suggest that most teachers do not enter the profession to get rich because teaching salaries are well documented as trailing many other professions that require a college degree, so spending their own limited funds in this fashion is simply bitter icing on the unpreparedness cake.

These disturbing trends are taking place during a period in the United States’ history when there is already an unprecedented shortage of qualified teachers. In fact, during the period from 2009 through 2014, there was a precipitous decline of 35% (610,000 versus 451,000) in new teacher enrollments in the country, and almost 8% of current teachers leave the profession before retirement (Strauss, 2017). Moreover, the United States is currently lagging behind many other countries in the vitally important areas of science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) education, ranking a dismal 38th out of 71 countries in these subject areas (Desilver, 2017). This combination of teachers leaving the profession within 5 years during a period when there is already a severe teacher shortage and declining test scores means that far too many students are being denied the high quality education that are purportedly guaranteed, an issue that forms the purpose of this study as described below.

Purpose of the Study

The overarching purpose of this study is to help educational leaders learn and determine the best practices to help alternatively and traditionally certified teacher improve student outcomes and to help with retention efforts. When initially reading the research, many of the articles contained basic content that reflected my interest. This study contains research supporting my interest in induction programs and teacher retention. Additionally, it contains details that helped determine the relationship between teacher certification, teaching skills, and content knowledge. These components are deeply intertwined in my research interest. Although no longer fully in place, the rationale behind the research initially involved the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, which required schools to hire "highly qualified" teachers. Since then there has been the establishment of many alternative certification programs. Whether or not these programs effectively produced teachers, and help with retention was part of what was considered in this study.

Many alternatively certified teachers work in the highest needs schools with inadequate and inconsistent support, which raised issues of basic fairness and concerns about alternative certification program designs. The data indicated that because of the difficulty of the first years of teaching under these conditions with so few coordinated supports, job satisfaction decreased with time on the job, and retention of teachers remained a problem. These trends and issues further reinforce the need for additional research concerning strategies to help new teachers enter the classroom with a strong sense of self-efficacy based on actual preparedness, and this conceptual framework is discussed below together with a graphic illustration of the factors that contribute to self-efficacy in new teachers.

Conceptual Framework

Findings of studies on teachers' perspectives, perceptions, or beliefs have provided valuable insights on assessing teaching practices linking teachers' perceptions (or beliefs) to positive instructional practices including classroom management as well as student school outcomes (Jones, 2006). In this context, teaching efficacy, defined as "teachers' beliefs about their own effectiveness" (Yilmaz, 2011, p. 92), has been a critical construct in teacher education programs as they attempt to improve the quality of teacher candidates' skills, knowledge, and dispositions. Consequently, teacher efficacy is also an important construct for the purpose of this study and the conceptual framework that will be used to guide it.

A teacher's sense of efficacy in teaching, or his or her confidence about being able to influence students' learning, is one of the most well-documented aspects of effective teaching (Henson, Kogan, & Vacha-Haase, 2001). The concept of teacher efficacy is based on Bandura's (1977; 1986) theory that efficacy beliefs have a profound effect on human agency in various ways. For example, many people tend to avoid tasks and do not put forth effort where they do not feel confident in achieving successful outcomes. Efficacious beliefs therefore affect how teachers interact with students as well as the corresponding amount of effort they are willing to devote to the effort in meeting academic objectives and optimal outcomes. In this regard, Darling-Hammond et al. (2002) reported significant correspondence between feelings of preparedness and sense of efficacy, a finding consistent with other research on teacher efficacy. When teachers feel they are well prepared, they tend to have high self-efficacy in teaching as conceptualized in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

Research Questions

The overarching research question that will guide this study is as follows: “What are teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and their ability to improve student outcomes?” In support of this main research question, there are a number of subquestions that must also be answered as follows:

1. What are the perceptions and attitudinal differences between traditionally and alternatively certified teachers?

2. What is the relationship between teachers who are traditionally and alternatively certified, and the teacher’s perception of their knowledge of content?

3. What is the relationship between teachers who are traditionally and alternatively certified, and the teacher’s perception of their knowledge of teaching skills?

4. Where are the primary teaching assignments for alternatively certified teachers?

5. What is the relationship between teacher preparedness and self-efficacy?

6. How do you determine your educational recruitment and retention program practices?

7. How are effective recruitment and retention programs organized?

8. What are the costs associated with recruitment and retention programs?

9. How does recruitment and retention impact attrition, school culture, and teacher development?

10. Is your evaluation system set up as a process for compliance and judgment or for learning?

11. Do both certified and classified staff have multiple opportunities for ongoing dialogue and constructive feedback about their professional practice?

12. Who looks at the information generated by your evaluation system and how is this information being used?

13. What is a mentor program and how it is organized?

14. How is the learning environment determined to be conducive to teachers' success?

Rationale for the Study

In order to develop informed and timely answers to the above-listed research question and subquestions, this study will examine prior research concerning teacher preparation and certification methods. Research has shown that various strengths are displayed by traditionally certified teachers and alternatively certified teachers in the classroom. Traditionally certified teachers have a sense of being more prepared to provide high-quality instruction upon their entrance into the classroom for the first time. Alternatively certified teachers, when provided with a mentor teacher, feel equally prepared.

Moreover, there is also a growing body of evidence that a positive correlation exists between feeling prepared and self-efficacy for both traditionally certified and alternatively certified teachers. While alternatively certified teachers usually have an excessive extent of content knowledge, alternatively certified teachers do not have the experience in the education field that traditionally certified teachers receive during their student teaching. This difference is cited time and again as one of the main constraints to the effectiveness of alternative certification programs in preparing new teachers for the classroom experience.

It is therefore important to develop an improved understanding concerning how teacher preparation is replicated in teaching skills and content knowledge within the classroom. All stakeholders, including most especially collegiate teacher and professional development programs, alternative teacher certification programs, principals, administrators and all those responsible for creating professional development opportunities for teachers can benefit from further research in this area and studies such as this have great implications for the field of education as discussed below.

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study relates to the need to ensure that alternatively and traditionally certified teachers are fully prepared to improve student outcomes because teaching matters because effective teaching is the foundation for improved educational outcomes. There is a significant body of research that provides an estimate of how much impact both alternatively and traditionally certified teachers have on student growth. This research determined that individual teachers account for the largest differences in students’ scores on large-scaled standardize test between students at the end of any given year after controlling for the differences that students bring to the classroom at the beginning of the year (Gordon, Kane, & Staiger 2006; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2000; Rockoff, 2004; Rowan, Correnti, & Miller, 2002;Wright, Horn, & Sanders, 1997). 

This means that the extent to which new teachers enter the classroom without the requisite formal training that traditional university-based programs provide will likely be the extent to which these new teachers leave the profession and fail to achieve optimal academic outcomes until they do. Consequently, studies such as this one are significant because they help shed fresh insights into the ongoing controversy concerning the efficacy of alternative certification programs in helping alleviate the nation’s teacher shortage and provide all public school students with the education they need to compete in the 21st century marketplace.

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Chapter Introduction

The following literature review examines the various types of relationships that exist between the two certification methods (traditional and alternative). Additionally, a review of teachers’ perception of their knowledge of content and teaching skills, or self-efficacy, is provided by synthesizing pertinent literature based on the type of preparedness training they received. Finally, a summary of the research and key findings that emerge from the literature conclude this chapter.

Sources of Teacher Certification

There are two main ways that teachers currently receive preparation for obtaining for teaching certificate or license: (1) traditional university based teacher education programs that are completed prior to a first year of teaching; and, (2) alternative certification programs for university graduates who have not gone through a teacher education program while obtaining a degree (Linek & Sampson, 2012, p. 68). The basic differences between these two approaches to teacher certification or licensure are depicted graphically in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Traditional teacher certification versus alternative teacher certification

Source: https://www.ccny.cuny.edu/sites/default/files/certification_2.jpg

As noted in the introductory chapter, there has been a severe shortage of qualified classroom teachers in the United States for a number of years now, and alternative certification programs have been implemented across the country in response. For instance, Mitchell and Romero (2010) stated that, “In California, close to a third of all new teachers enter the profession through the intern-based alternative certification route [and] this picture mirrors a nationwide trend. All 50 states currently offer some form of alternative certification” (p. 364). There is also growing support for the use of alternative certification programs for teachers. For example, the U.S. Department of Education maintains that alternative certification strategies can help to increase the quantity as well as the quality of new classroom teachers during a period in the nation’s history when there is a critical shortage of qualified educators (LInek & Sampson, 2012).

There are some criticisms of the growing proliferation and acceptance of alternative certification programs, however, that must also be taken into account when evaluating the efficacy of these alternative pathways to accreditation. For example, the National Education Association's (NEA) Committee on Instruction and Professional Development emphasizes that, “What began in the early 1980s as a way to ward off projected shortages of teachers and replace emergency certification has rapidly evolved into an accepted model for recruiting, training, and certifying those who already have at least a bachelor's degree and want to become teachers” (Research spotlight on alternative routes to teacher certification, 2018, para. 2).

As the research that follows below will clearly demonstrate, this issue is a recurring theme in the literature concerning self-efficacy and new teacher effectiveness. Indeed, Linek and Sampson (2012) emphasize that the NEA has criticized alternative certification programs for lowering certification standards which result in new teachers entering the classroom poorly prepared for the rigors they will inevitably encounter. In this regard, Linek and Sampson report that the NEA and like-minded organizations believe that “alternative certification programs reduce the amount of preparation teachers have before taking on full time classroom responsibilities because research continues to document that the less preparation a teacher has, the less students achieve” (p. 69).

Conversely, proponents of alternative certification programs maintain that these programs provide a useful framework in which to attract nontraditional candidates who are generally older and who possess a non-education degree as well as having significant experience in non-teaching fields to the teaching profession (Linek & Sampson, 2012). A growing body of research confirms that when people transfer from one career field to another, they typically bring some fresh skills to the profession that are especially valuable (Scott, 2010), but advocates of alternative certification programs also point to a number of other benefits these programs provide. For instance, Linek and Sampson (2012) report that, “Some nontraditional candidates are minority males who are members of communities in need of teachers. Alternative certification supporters also point to the intense education sessions before and after a full day at school and two supervisors per candidate as sufficient to produce qualified teachers” (p. 70).

Because many new teachers who leave the profession within a few years have been assigned to impoverished communities with inordinately high percentages of students from lower socioeconomic groups, it just makes good sense to attempt to attract nontraditional male minority members to the teaching profession, and proponents of alternative certification programs argue that traditional university-based teacher education programs represents a fundamental “barrier” to entering the teaching field for these non-traditional candidates (Linek & Sampson, 2012). Nevertheless, there are some distinct differences between these two certification models that bear further examination in order to determine the extent to which they contribute to new teachers’ sense of preparedness and self-efficacy.

While it is possible to reap the benefits of fresh ideas and skill sets that are transferred from one profession to another in the business world (Scott, 2010), the same is not necessarily true when it comes to the manner in which alternative education certification programs prepare new teachers for the classroom environment. In fact, this is one of the major problems that critics cite when they argue that alternative certification programs place new teachers in classrooms without the formal training they need to “hit the ground running.” For instance, Linek and Sampson (2012) note that:

The current alternative teacher certification programs often put instructors in classrooms with little to no pedagogical training. Yet, those who support alternative certification assume that anyone, even without pedagogical coursework, who has a subject matter degree and some type of professional support can begin teaching and that teaching abilities can be developed on the job. (p. 70)

On the one hand, the majority of the studies to date that have been used to rationalize this approach to credentialing new teachers has relied on a strict comparison of test scores on teacher certification examinations rather than on empirical observations concerning their respective effectiveness with respect to classroom practice or comparisons of standardized test scores in classes taught by teachers with traditional training backgrounds with those of alternatively credentialed teachers. As a result, there remains a paucity of evidence concerning the actual effectiveness of alternative credential programs in preparing new teachers for the classroom (Linek & Sampson, 2012).

On the other hand, though, the majority of the studies during the past several decades has consistently determined that teachers with traditional teacher education program background who enter the classroom as fully certified teachers enjoy higher levels of professional success compared to their counterparts who receive their teaching certificate or license through alternative credentialing programs. Based on these findings, Linek and Sampson (2012) suggest that new teachers who lack a traditional university-based education should be restricted in their teaching responsibilities unless and until they secure one. In this regard Linek and Sampson conclude that “it may not be in the best interest of students and society, in general, to give a new teacher in an alternative certification program sole responsibility for the day-to-day functions of a classroom prior to the completion of an educational training program”(p. 71).

It is therefore critical that the educational community comprehends the effect that alternative certification route has with teacher quality and self-efficacy because many of the teachers entering the field are entering through this method. Kennedy (2008) points out “the volume of research on teachers' qualifications has grown to several hundred studies, but it has not settled arguments about the merits of teacher education programs” (p. 344).  Additional research in this field will have great implications on student achievement as teachers are prepared for the classroom, through collegiate teacher programs and alternative teacher programs.

        To discover articles related to this topic the following key terms were used: pedagogical knowledge, initial certification, content knowledge, alternative certification, teaching skills, self-efficacy, teacher preparedness, traditional certification. Five distinctive patterns emerged from the review of the articles:

(1) There is a link between teachers feeling prepared and self-efficacy.

(2) Traditionally certified teachers expressed feeling more prepared than alternatively certified teachers.

(3) While on average, but not as much as traditionally certified teachers, alternatively certified teachers have a respectable understanding of content knowledge.

(4) Self-efficacy is increased when alternatively certified teachers are assigned a mentor.

(5) Alternatively certified teachers lack experience in the teaching profession as compared to traditionally certified teachers who gain student teaching experience.

These main patterns and themes will be assessed to determine how to best support teachers in helping students become academically successful. One of the main ways that new teachers receive institutional support is through the assignment of mentor teachers to promote their sense of self-efficacy as discussed below.

Mentor Teacher’s Impact on Self-Efficacy

The theme found when analyzing the literature concerning this fact was that the provision of mentor teacher to alternatively certified teachers resulted in increased self-efficacy of the alternatively certified teachers. When discussing the use of a mentor teacher, Rockoff, Jacob, Kane, and Staiger (2008) suggest districts focus more on “performance in the early part of teachers’ careers as opposed to spending more resources on recruitment and hiring” (p. 1), as alternatively certified teachers with a mentor are on par with traditionally certified teachers in regards to self-efficacy (Metzler & Blankenship, 2008).

Likewise, Evans (2011) saw a significant increase in attitudes towards teaching and teacher’s self-efficacy when teachers were assigned a mentor teacher. Alternatively certified teachers felt less supported, which can lead to a direct effect of feeling unsuccessful (Foote, Brantlinger, Haydar, Smith, & Gonzalez, 2010). This feeling of being unsuccessful can often be limited (Hung & Smith, 2012) or progressively minimized (Robinson & Edwards, 2012) when assigning appropriate mentors to new teachers. Having a mentor allows teachers to be more confident in their own abilities to teach, particularly alternatively certified teachers (Mouza, Karchmer-Klein, Nandakumar, Ozden, & Hu, 2014; Unruh & Holt, 2010).With teachers feeling more supported, they are more likely to remain in the field (Malow?Iroff, O’Connor, & Bisland, 2007).

Experience in the Teaching Profession

Human resource departments are continuously recruiting new teaching talent because keeping highly qualified and successful teachers in the classroom is becoming a major challenge. Siwatu (2011) expressed “as evidenced by the numerous reports written by government and international educational agencies as well as recent empirical studies, teacher attrition rates have become a significant international concern among educational administrators” (p. 357). Therefore, it is no surprise that this was a recurring theme in the research. For example, Ng and Thomas (2007) reported that “between 40% and 50% of all beginning teachers leave teaching within the first 5 years” (p. 3). Therefore, it should be a high priority for those in the field of education research to determine the why and combat this statistic.

Teachers who feel inadequately supported are more likely to leave the education field, and those who feel strongly in their ability to educate young learners are generally more effective teachers with a greater chance of continuing in the teaching profession (Foote, Brantlinger, Haydar, Smith & Gonzalez, 2010;Mouza, Karchmer-Klein, Nandakumar, Ozden & Hu, 2014). In Malow?Iroff, O'Connor, and Bisland's (2007) study, 29% of first-year teachers intended to leave the field at the end of their first school year because they felt inadequately supported. There are higher retention rates for first-year teachers who are traditionally certified than those who obtained alternative certification (Robinson & Edwards, 2012). Thus, a growing body of evidence indicates that the provision of a mentor serves to increase self-efficacy, and a teacher’s longevity in the field (Tournaki, Lyublinskaya, & Carolan, 2009).  

Beyond the foregoing desirable outcomes, there are some other benefits to assigning mentors to new teachers to promote their sense of self-efficacy, including most especially the manner in which these programs help mentors in developing their own teaching expertise. In this regard, Epstein and Willhite (2015) emphasize that, “The professional skills of mentor teachers are also strengthened and a study addressing pre-service teacher preparation [found that] 85% of mentor teachers reported learning innovative teaching strategies, a stronger understanding of culturally responsive teaching as well as enhanced communication and collaboration skills” (p. 191). In sum, assigning mentors to new teachers to promote their sense of self-efficacy and preparedness represents a win-win strategy for school districts across the country, and these issues are also applicable to alternatively certified teachers as discussed further below.

Support for Alternatively Certified Teachers

        Research indicates that there is a link between alternative certification and an increased understanding of content knowledge. First-year teachers who are alternatively certified have been shown to have a stronger knowledge and command of the content than those traditionally certified (Boyd, Grossman, Hammerness, Lankford, Loeb, Ronfeldt, & Wyckoff, 2010; Duncan & Ricketts, 2008). Alternatively certified teachers are most efficacious about their content knowledge (Duncan & Ricketts, 2008). This is an often overlooked positive attribute to alternative certification programs.

Notwithstanding the various criticisms that have been leveled against them, other attributes of alternative certification programs for teachers that support their increased use include the following:

· Recruiting bright and promising college graduates into teaching who do not follow traditional certification routes;

· Lessening reliance on emergency certifications,

· Breaking the monopoly of traditional teacher certification programs, but allowing outsiders, such as foundations and corporations, to influence teacher preparation policy;

· Encouraging deregulation of teacher preparation; and,

· Meeting the needs of urban schools and students that traditional teacher certification programs fail (Zhao, 2005, p. 2).

Some of the current objectives of alternative certification programs for new teachers are directly aligned with the nation’s priorities for its public schools, while others are more pragmatic in their outlook concerning what types of optimal outcomes can be achieved using these credentialing strategies. At present, the objectives of alternative certification programs include the following:

· To diversify the teaching force and increase the participation of under-represented teachers by recruiting more male and minority people into the teaching force;

· To reduce the teacher shortage and increase the teaching pool in urban and rural school districts, and in certain subjects such as mathematics and science;

· To improve the quality of the teaching force by recruiting persons who are brighter than the average traditionally certified teachers and who have had a broader range of experiences outside of teaching; and,

· To decrease the need for emergency credentialing to meet teacher shortages (Zhao, 2005, pp. 2-3).

As noted throughout, marginalized students in urban school settings are especially in need of highly qualified and capable teachers, meaning that alternative certification programs hold the potential to help alleviate the teacher shortage in these venues. As also noted throughout, however, it makes little sense to thrust new teachers into the classroom without adequate and appropriate preparation for the rigors they will inevitably encounter, and these issues are discussed further below.

Teacher Preparedness and Self-Efficacy

        There is a direct correlation between teachers’ feelings of being prepared and their corresponding feeling of self-efficacy (Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002). This assertion is supported by Bandura’s seminal research in this area as well as a growing body of evidence that confirms the relationship between a sense of preparedness and self-efficacy. Although a number of different factors play an important role in fostering teacher quality and effectiveness in the classroom, teacher preparation programs have been found to play an especially major role in the process because they provide new teachers with the opportunity to make a difference in the quality of teaching in ways that motivate them and reinforce their sense of self-efficacy. However, the literature on teacher preparation programs shows that different programs vary in learning experiences offered and in how well prepared graduates feel (Lee & Tice, 2012).

While additional research in this area is still needed, what is known for certain at present is that teachers with a higher sense of self-efficacy feel more prepared, and this sense provides more support and a more positive classroom environment compared to other teachers with lower self-efficacy levels (Connor, Guo,Morrison, Roehrig, &Yang, 2012). Teachers who have less coursework in education and shorter field experiences are often less prepared (Kee, 2012) and thus, have a low sense of self-efficacy. It is reasonable to suggest that like lion tamers, new teachers who feel more prepared to enter the classroom for the first time will be more effective in providing the high quality education all students need and deserve, and these issues are discussed further below with respect to new teachers’ feeling of preparedness.

Feeling of Preparedness

        It is fairly intuitive that people who possess a strong sense of preparedness for a given task or responsibility will also be better prepared for the enterprise, but the source of the preparedness feeling makes a difference in the quality and quantitative of this innate sense. For example, teachers who are prepared through traditional teacher education programs, such as through a university, feel significantly better prepared than those who enter the field through alternative programs (Chung, Darling-Hammond, &Frelow, 2002; Connor, Morrison & Roehrig, & Yang, 2012; Connor, Guo, Morrison, Roehrig, & Yang, 2012).

In this context, educators’ sense of efficacy concerning their teaching translates into a corresponding level of confidence about their ability to have a positive effect on academic outcomes, and this sense is among the best documented issues about effective teaching (Lee & Tice, 2012). This conceptualization of teacher efficacy derives from Bandura's theory concerning efficacy beliefs which he believed influenced human agency in a number of different ways (Lee & Tice, 2012). In this regard, Bandura (1997) pointed out that “an efficacy expectation is the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes” (p. 193) and “self-efficacy is a person's belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation [which are] determinants of how people think, behave, and feel” (as cited in Epstein & Willhite, 2015, p. 190)..

A good example of this theoretical perspective is that many people tend to avoid performing tasks or responsibilities with which they are uncomfortable and therefore fail to give the initiative all of their effort and abilities (Lee & Tice, 2012). In order words, a diminished sense of self-efficacy is essentially a self-fulfilling prophecy that has doomed many teachers’ professional careers before they ever had the opportunity to learn the ropes and become comfortable in a classroom setting.

While these constraints have resulted in many otherwise-qualified teachers leaving the profession, the impact on students during the process is also naturally negative and adversely impacts their ability to learn. As a result, teachers must recognize the manner in which their sense of self-efficacy affects their ability to effectively draw on what they have learned during their teacher education process. In this area, Bandura speculated that even in those cases where people fully understand what type of actions or activities are required in order to produce a desired outcome, they are reluctant to pursue these efforts if they believe they lack of the expertise concerning how to best accomplish them so they exert less effort towards that outcome (Taylor & Ringlaben, 2012).

Moreover, these points are also made by Darling-Hammond et al. (2002) who report that teachers’ sense of self-efficacy directly contributes to the amount of effort they are willing to expend in order to achieve improved academic outcomes. In a broader context, this process is inherently human in nature since people who feel they are incapable of achieving something, most especially objectives that are particularly complex and difficult and which are largely outside their area of experience will feel less inclined to expend inordinate amounts of effort compared to those who possess the requisite background and skills set needed for these purposes.

Likewise, Lee and Tice (2012) point out that there is a strong relationship between new teachers’ sense of self-efficacy and their corresponding feelings of preparedness. In sum, Lee and Tice conclude that, “When teachers feel they are well prepared, they tend to have high self-efficacy in teaching” (2012, p 4). These observations bring to mind the axiom provided by the “Little Engine That Could” which stresses that when people believe they are capable of accomplishing something, they will naturally tend to be more willing to expend the effort required to do so.

Many alternatively certified teachers, however, feel less prepared to support student learning than to teach content (Zientek, 2006, 2007), and much less prepared overall than traditionally certified teachers (Kee, 2012). For example, Unruh and Holt (2010) and Robinson and Edwards (2012) found more similarities than differences between the programs. However, they did note alternatively certified teachers feel less prepared unless they were provided with additional support services. Taken together, it is clear that differently credentialed new teachers have significantly different classroom experiences, and these differences relate, at least in part, to their credentialing programs.

Summary

        This literature synthesis offers evidence that there is additional work to be done in regards to research over the strengths and weaknesses of both certification programs. The literature review showed that traditionally certified teachers had more self-efficacy. It also showed that if alternatively certified teachers were assigned a mentor, they could have the same level of self-efficacy. Furthermore, there were links tied to a teacher's sense of preparedness and self-efficacy. Issues regarding teacher retention also surfaced. This showed a correlation to self-efficacy and longevity in the field; alternatively certified teachers had a higher turnover rate. Additionally, the research confirmed that alternatively certified teachers had good understanding of content, both in depth and breadth.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Overview

As noted in the introductory chapter, the overarching research question that will be used to guide this study is as follows: “What are teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and their ability to improve student outcomes?” This main research question include a number of subquestions that must also be answered as follows:

15. What are the perceptions and attitudinal differences between traditionally and alternatively certified teachers?

16. What is the relationship between teachers who are traditionally and alternatively certified, and the teacher’s perception of their knowledge of content?

17. What is the relationship between teachers who are traditionally and alternatively certified, and the teacher’s perception of their knowledge of teaching skills?

18. Where are the primary teaching assignments for alternatively certified teachers?

19. What is the relationship between teacher preparedness and self-efficacy?

20. How do you determine your educational recruitment and retention program practices?

21. How are effective recruitment and retention programs organized?

22. What are the costs associated with recruitment and retention programs?

23. How does recruitment and retention impact attrition, school culture, and teacher development?

24. Is your evaluation system set up as a process for compliance and judgment or for learning?

25. Do both certified and classified staff have multiple opportunities for ongoing dialogue and constructive feedback about their professional practice?

26. Who looks at the information generated by your evaluation system and how is this information being used?

27. What is a mentor program and how it is organized?

28. How is the learning environment determined to be conducive to teachers' success?

This chapter provides a description of the proposed study’s methodology, including the research design described below that will be used to develop timely and informed answers to the above-listed research questions and subquestions.

Research Design

A mixed methods research design will be used for the proposed study consisting of qualitative and quantitative methods. This design includes structured interviews, surveys/self-completion questionnaires, and participant observations. In addition, the research design includes contributions from a number of key stakeholders. There will be several initiatives used by the proposed study’s research design to move from initiation to implementation, and then to institutionalization. The process of initiation will involve the efforts of key personnel who have direct ties to the end goal. This will be the most important process because effective implementation or institutionalization rest on the foundation of initiation.

In order for this research design to be successful, there will be several individuals involved in the initiative. Without question, alternatively and traditionally certified teachers with 0-3 years of experience will participate in the study along with their principals. Additionally, there will be data team members, mentors, instructional coaches, technology team members, and a team of individuals involved with the induction process. The data team members will work with the teachers to help familiarize them with student data, as well as school and district data. Teachers will work specifically on how to interpret the data. This will benefit the teachers because they will gain understanding in terms of how to better prepare their lessons based upon student performance data.

In addition, mentors will be assigned to the teachers. Mentors will work with teachers on a day-to-day basis. This will allow the mentors to get acquainted to the school’s culture and be assessable for questions and general guidance. Instructional coaches will be involved to provide guidance and understanding of lesson design and instructional methods. The instructional coaches will also model lessons and make observations to provide feedback on how the teachers perform. This will also help the teachers to better understand how to interact with students. Technology team members will help teachers understand how to best utilize the necessary technology for their day-to-day tasks.

Additionally, the technology team members will provide training on learning programs that teachers will be encouraged to have students utilize for their learning. The induction team members will provide an opportunity for teachers to be involved in an engaging process, which will help them understand the general operation of the district as well as who and how to access all things that they may need.

In sum, the individuals, district/campus administrators, teachers, and support staff who will work on the initial phase of the program are critical to its success. These individuals must possess effective leadership traits, pedagogical knowledge, and a solid resume of success. During the initiation phase, these individuals will work diligently to identify and analyze an evaluation program, class sizes, and funding.

During the entire process, there will be three distinct phases that are composed of action plans for each phase, involving collaboration and review of various data sets to define ownership and alignment of responsibilities for the various improvement measures to be implemented and ultimately institutionalized in the implementation plan as set forth in Table 1 below.

Table 1

Steps towards implementation

Phase

Description of Actions

Phase one: Initiation Plan

? Action 1. Initial Research and Review of Team Selection

Once the district is interested in implementing the initiative, there is review of the initiatives components and activities. This information is shared amongst the team members.

? Action 2. Initial Collection of Historic Data and Longitudinal History Self-Study.

The team members collect previous data related to funding, class sizes, evaluation programs, and student outcomes. Afterwards, they determine the organizational health of the district and related impacts on student outcomes.

? Action 3. Faculty Discussion on Project and Rollout

The superintendent shares the project model and timelines with the entire staff.

Phase 2. Implementation Plan

? Action 1. Initial Implementation Plan Meeting

This is the initial planning meeting for the team members. Written outlines of the steps, activities timelines, and roles are assigned.

? Action 2. Organizational Readiness Validation

The team members validate their findings and the programs sustainability (adequate funding, appropriate class size ratios, and evaluation program).

? Action 3. Formation of Rollout of Programs

This action involves the formation and initiation of the induction program, mentor program and assignments, and the assignments of data/technology/instructional team members to teachers.

? Action 4. Evaluation and Student Outcomes Study

During this time, the teachers are evaluated and provided additional training and resources to determine how they well they helped their students achieve. The evaluation process will include classroom walkthroughs, monitoring of pedagogical practices, collaborative and collegial relationships, and acclimation to the school’s/district’s culture. Feedback will be provided as it is essential for teachers to grow. Also, teachers and principals will review student outcomes to include ongoing classroom summative assessments, district grading cards, and state assessment data.

? Action 5. Achievement of the Goal

The team members will determine if the goals are being accomplished. A comprehensive review of the resources, timelines, etc. will be conducted. A comprehensive needs assessment will also be conducted to help ensure that the program moves forward successfully.

Phase 3. Institutionalization Plan

? Action 1. Review and Alignment of District Policies, Vision and Mission Statements

The district makes certain that district policies and vision and mission statements are consistent with the model’s initiatives.If not, appropriate policy changes or statement revisions are proposed.

? Action 2. Review Multi-tiered Data Collection, Management, and Implementation Systems

Review strategies, programs, and approaches to identify strengths, weaknesses, gaps, and needs for short and long-term purposes.

? Action 3. Development and Validation of Accountability Matrix

To safeguard against individual approaches, the creation of a systems approach is necessary. Therefore, the development and validation of an accountability matrix will guarantee a systematic process.

? Action 4. Training for the Entire Staff

To institutionalize the model and have an impact on all stakeholders, there will be ongoing training for all participants.

The results from the implementation plan will be used to identify where teachers are performing well and where they may need to improve. The results will not only be used to hold teachers accountable but will also be used to hold policymakers and school leaders accountable. The success of the initiative will be determined by ultimately measuring student outcomes measured by state assessments and district grading cards. This will allow comparisons between alternatively and traditionally certified teachers’ performance over a period time.

Embedded in this three-phase initiative are particular undertakings for the district to initiate the plan. It is important to realize that this is only one model to meet the demands of improving student outcomes by improving teachers’ self-efficacy and preparedness. The district must use their staff and resources to continuously evaluate the impact of this model to provide continuous improvement measures. This model can be successfully initiated, implemented and institutionalized as long as there is a commitment, communication, and a shared leadership approach. Besides the foregoing key stakeholders, the main participants in the proposed study are described below.

Participants

As noted above, the participants in the proposed study will consist of both traditionally and alternatively certified public education teachers with zero to three years of experience. To ensure data is collected from a variety of subjects/contents and grade levels, fifty percent of the teachers will be secondary, and the other fifty percent will be elementary. Special education teachers and teachers who teach a critical needs subjects as well as Career and Technology Education (CATE/CTE) subjects will also be included.

Additionally, there will be data team members, mentors, instructional coaches, technology team members, and a team of individuals involved in the induction process. The data team members will work with the teachers to help familiarize them with student data, as well as school and district data. Teachers will work specifically on how to interpret the data. This will benefit the teachers because they will gain understanding regarding how to better prepare their lessons based on student performance data.

Mentors will be assigned to the teachers. Mentors will work with teachers on a day-to-day basis. This will allow the mentors to get acquainted with the school's culture and be assessable for questions and general guidance. Instructional coaches will be involved to provide guidance and understanding of lesson design and instructional methods. The instructional coaches will also model lessons and make observations to provide feedback on how the teachers perform. In addition, this step will also help the teachers to better understand how to interact with students.

Technology team members will help teachers understand how to best utilize the necessary technology for their day-to-day tasks. Additionally, the technology team members will provide training on learning programs that teachers will be encouraged to have students utilize for their learning. The induction team members will provide an opportunity for teachers to be involved in an engaging process, which will have them understand the general operation of the district as well as who and how to access all things that they may need.

The school district where these participants are assigned is a representative American school district where the majority of the students are categorized as economically disadvantaged and at risk of dropping out and/or academic failure. The demographic breakdown of the school district is set forth in Table 2 below and depicted graphically in Figure 3 below.

Table 2

Demographic breakdown of school district of interest

Demographic group

Percentage of student enrollment

Hispanic

White

African American

Two or more races

Asian

Pacific Islander

American Indian

Figure 3. Demographic breakdown of students in the school district of interest

The socioeconomic and academic status of the students in the school district of interest are set forth in Table 3 and depicted graphically in Figure 4 below.

Table 3

Socioeconomic and academic status of students in the school district of interest

Socioeconomic/academic status

Percentage of student enrollment

At-Risk

Economically Disadvantaged

English Language Learners

Gifted and Talented

Special Education

Figure 4. Socioeconomic and academic status of students in the school district of interest

The focus on lifelong learning has been imperative to the district’s success. However, due to the large number of alternatively certified teachers, and the high teacher attrition rate, collective learning is inconsistently implemented. Thus, student outcomes are hindered in achieving their full academic potential. The teachers are encouraged to allow students to have real-world learning opportunities. The challenge is with teachers knowing to create activities to incorporate this into their classes. For the teachers to better work towards this end, time has been scheduled for them to collaborate during school hours. This site was selected for the proposed study because the author is an employee in the district, and would like to retrieve and analyze this data to identify the district's respective strengths and challenges to determine how this study may help improve teacher retention and preparedness in ways that will contribute to better academic outcomes.

Instrumentation

Some additional data that will be collected for the study proposed herein will require instrumentation, including questions for face-to-face interviews and focus groups, as well as teacher questionnaires, student assessment performance data, team members input and suggestion forms, and teacher evaluation data. The face-to-face interviews for the proposed study will be conducted to receive personal insight regarding the participant's experience. Focus groups will be utilized to discuss and receive general insight on various aspects of the implementation plan, evaluation tool, and measures for continuous improvement.