Cultural Heritage through the Lens of Decolonization

The Paradox of Value Attribution in Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH)

Introduction

Cultural heritage, a manifestation of society's cumulative knowledge, beliefs, and customs, goes beyond tangible artifacts and edifices. The preservation and interpretation of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) — traditions, rituals, stories, music, dance, and other non-physical facets of a cultural group's identity — are equally vital. This essay aims to explore the complex process of defining and categorizing ICH, analyze the paradox of value attribution in ICH, and assess the effectiveness and limitations of current practices in preserving ICH. It uses the decolonization lens and the cultural iceberg model to make sense of these problems and to clarify perspectives. Employed in this paper are the case studies of the Ute Grandfather Tree, the Hikaye in Palestine, and Capoeira in Brazil to illustrate practical implications.

Defining and Categorizing ICH

Understanding ICH indeed necessitates a deep engagement with the fluidity and subjectivity inherent in cultural practices. It's an intricate matrix of accumulated wisdom, artistic expressions, rituals, and customs, ceaselessly mutating and evolving. As Lira and Amoêda (2019) suggest, the construction of ICH is an ongoing process. It is not a static catalog that can be inventoried or archived but a dynamic entity that mirrors the rich diversity of human cultures, their identity, and their relationship with their environment. Kurin (2004) supports this viewpoint in his work, emphasizing that ICH is intrinsically "dynamic and changing, not static and timeless" (p. 66). He further highlights the 'invented' nature of traditions, suggesting that traditions are continually created and recreated to respond to changing societal circumstances. Pereira Roders and Van Oers (2011) also recognizes the active nature of ICH and the role communities play in its creation and recreation. She highlights the community as the primary steward and the driving force behind the sustenance of ICH. This interaction of communities with ICH underscores its fluid, ever-evolving nature.

Furthermore, studies by Deacon et al. (2004) argue that ICH doesn't exist in a vacuum; it's deeply rooted in the tangible world. Their work elucidates the profound linkages between the tangible and intangible elements of heritage, emphasizing that ICH gives meaning to objects, spaces, and landscapes, while the physical world shapes the ways ICH is enacted and expressed.

Yet, although these perspectives enrich our understanding, the challenge of defining ICH for preservation and safeguarding becomes evident. The effort to create universal categories for ICH can oversimplify and homogenize the immense diversity and fluidity of these practices. As Bortolotto (2011) has critically pointed out, the attempt to 'list' or 'classify' ICH can inadvertently lead to freezing and fossilizing these dynamic practices.

Still, the efforts to standardize and categorize ICH for preservation and safeguarding purposes often run into difficulties. The adoption of a universal ICH framework is problematic given the cultural diversity it seeks to capture. For instance, the Hikaye, an oral narrative tradition in Palestine, is deeply rooted in a unique socio-historical context that is distinct from other oral traditions worldwide. Therefore, trying to fit it into a broad category, such as 'oral narratives,' may result in oversimplification and loss of cultural specificity. One way to address this problem is to apply an appropriate lens to the issue. For that reason, the decolonization lens can help provide clarity.

Decolonization Lens

Decolonization, as a theoretical and practical approach, compels us to critically examine and confront the power structures that underpin the categorization, interpretation, and preservation of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH). This lens challenges the prevailing Eurocentric models and assumptions that have historically shaped the global heritage field, offering an opportunity to dismantle these structures and advance more inclusive, equitable, and contextually relevant practices.

The process of decolonizing ICH involves several interconnected layers (Schaepe et al., 2020). Firstly, it requires a reevaluation of how we define and categorize ICH. As noted earlier, existing categories, largely shaped by Western frameworks, often fail to capture the fluidity, diversity, and holistic nature of non-Western cultural practices. They can also inadvertently marginalize certain forms of ICH that do not conform to these Western-centric categories. Through a decolonization lens, we can strive to establish more inclusive and contextually relevant categorizations that reflect diverse cultural perspectives and experiences.

Secondly, decolonization challenges the processes of value attribution in ICH, which is the core paradox explored in this essay (Eichler, 2021). Value is not an inherent attribute of ICH; it's a socially constructed notion influenced by various factors, including power dynamics, cultural contexts, and historical experiences. In many instances, the values attributed to ICH are filtered through a Western lens, which often prioritizes certain forms of heritage over others. Decolonization pushes us to acknowledge and confront these power dynamics, fostering a more pluralistic understanding of value that respects and validates diverse cultural perspectives.

Thirdly, decolonization involves reclaiming agency in the interpretation and preservation of ICH. Often, decisions about what aspects of ICH are preserved, how they are interpreted, and who gets to make these decisions, are controlled by dominant groups, leading to the marginalization of other voices. Decolonization emphasizes the need to decentralize this power, giving agency back to the communities who are the custodians of the ICH (Eichler, 2021). This shift not only fosters more accurate and authentic interpretations of ICH but also empowers communities to assert their cultural rights and sovereignty.

Lastly, decolonization also invites a reassessment of the role of institutions in ICH preservation (Bortolotto, 2012). Museums, heritage organizations, and even UNESCO, while playing vital roles in preserving and promoting ICH, often operate within Western-centric paradigms. Decolonization encourages these institutions to critically interrogate their practices, ideologies, and relationships with communities, pushing for structural changes that align with decolonial principles.

Overall, decolonization provides a pathway to deconstruct and reconstruct the ways we engage with ICH. It prompts us to listen, learn, and respond to diverse cultural voices, challenge our assumptions, and strive for more equitable, inclusive, and respectful heritage practices. It doesn't provide easy solutions, but it illuminates the complexities, tensions, and possibilities inherent in the field of ICH preservation, ultimately enriching our understanding and appreciation of our shared cultural heritage.Top of Form

The Case of the Grandfather Tree

The case of the Ute 'Grandfather Tree' serves as a good example of the complicated nature of ICH, as it blurs the categories of natural, intangible, and cultural/built heritage. It also brings to the fore how conflicting cultural perspectives and beliefs can have tangible consequences on the preservation of heritage.

From the perspective of the Ute tribes and many indigenous cultures globally, the natural world and cultural world are intricately intertwined. There is no dichotomy between nature and culture; instead, they form a holistic system. The Ute ‘Grandfather Tree’ is a prime example of this. The tree is not simply a natural resource; it is a vibrant embodiment of Ute cultural heritage, embodying their history, spirituality, and collective identity. Its designation as a 'Grandfather' underscores the belief in the tree's personhood and its rights to exist (Aikawa, 2004).

In contrast, the actions of the Delta County Historical Society echo the dominant Western perspective that separates nature from culture. The society perceived the tree as just an object, a piece of wood devoid of rights. This divergent view resulted in the abrupt end of a living entity that symbolized the cultural heritage of the Ute people. It vividly illustrates the epistemological barriers that can impede the understanding, communication, and protection of natural heritage resources (Cameron and Ross, 2007).

This case raises crucial questions about the categorization and valuation of heritage. It demonstrates that the conventional categories of heritage are neither universal nor neutral; they are culturally constructed and can exclude certain forms of heritage (Smith, 2006). In the context of ICH, it suggests that we need to consider more holistic and inclusive categorizations that recognize the interconnectedness of nature and culture, tangible and intangible, physical and spiritual.

It also reflects the paradox of value attribution in ICH. It shows that value is not an inherent attribute but a constructed notion, influenced by power dynamics, worldviews, and cultural contexts. The different values assigned to the 'Grandfather Tree' by the Ute tribes and the Historical Society reflect their distinct worldviews and cultural values. Thus, this case highlights the urgent need for intercultural dialogue and understanding in heritage preservation. It suggests that we need to listen to and learn from diverse cultural perspectives, particularly indigenous wisdom, to foster more inclusive and sustainable heritage practices (Waterton and Watson, 2013).

Capoeira

Capoeira is a vibrant Afro-Brazilian tradition that has evolved from a martial art practiced by enslaved Africans in Brazil into a symbol of Brazilian national identity and an emblem of Afro-Brazilian culture. This tradition, characterized by its dynamic blend of dance, music, and martial arts, encapsulates the paradox of value attribution in Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) and the complexities of preserving ICH in a globalized world.

During the colonial period and the early years of the Brazilian Republic, Capoeira was heavily stigmatized and repressed due to its associations with enslaved Africans and their descendants. It was often associated with criminality and disorder, reflecting the racial and social prejudices of the time (Downey, 2005). This perspective illustrates how value attribution in ICH is deeply intertwined with power dynamics. The dominant elites, who held the power to define and control cultural narratives, dismissed and criminalized Capoeira.

However, during the 20th century, societal attitudes towards Capoeira began to shift. As Brazil sought to forge a unified national identity that celebrated its racial and cultural diversity, Capoeira was reinterpreted as a symbol of Brazilian-ness and a source of national pride. This change was accompanied by efforts to 'sanitize' and institutionalize Capoeira, removing its subversive elements and promoting it as a sport and cultural performance (Assunção, 2005).

The recognition of Capoeira as a significant ICH by UNESCO in 2014 further solidified its value and status. However, this international recognition also introduced new challenges. As Capoeira becomes an object of global fascination, it risks being commodified and detached from its cultural roots. This phenomenon, often referred to as the 'Disneyfication' of heritage, transforms ICH into consumable goods for tourism and entertainment, potentially diluting their authenticity and cultural significance (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998).

This is not to suggest that the globalization of Capoeira is entirely detrimental. It also offers opportunities for cultural exchange, innovation, and empowerment. It has provided Afro-Brazilian communities a platform to assert their cultural identity and values on a global stage, and it has enabled the Capoeira tradition to evolve and thrive in diverse cultural contexts.

Nevertheless, it underscores the complexities and tensions inherent in ICH preservation. It illustrates that the process of defining, valuing, and preserving ICH is never neutral or static; it is dynamic, contested, and shaped by shifting power relations and societal transformations. It also highlights the importance of navigating the balance between safeguarding the cultural integrity of ICH and allowing for cultural dynamism and exchange in a globalized world.

In the context of this paper, the case of Capoeira underscores the need for a critical, nuanced understanding of the paradox of value attribution in ICH. It demonstrates the potential pitfalls of commodification and the challenges of maintaining authenticity in the face of globalization. It also illustrates the potential of ICH as a tool for cultural empowerment and as a platform for marginalized voices to be heard.

Hikaye

Hikaye is a traditional form of oral narrative practiced primarily by women in Palestine. As a form of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH), Hikaye carries profound cultural, historical, and social significance. However, its existence is threatened due to a range of socio-political factors, leading to what is described as its struggle against "ossification". The term "ossification" in the context of ICH refers to the process by which a dynamic, living cultural practice becomes static, frozen, or extinct due to various pressures. In the case of Hikaye, these pressures include modernization, political instability, conflict, and displacement, among others.

Modernization, particularly the rise of digital media, has transformed the ways in which stories are told and shared, leading to a decline in oral storytelling traditions like Hikaye. While digital media can also offer new opportunities for the transmission of ICH, it also poses challenges. The shift from oral to written or digital formats can alter the nature of these traditions, as the performative, communal, and improvisational aspects of oral storytelling may be lost in the transition.

Political instability and conflict in Palestine have further exacerbated the decline of Hikaye. These conditions have disrupted traditional ways of life, severed intergenerational connections, and caused physical and cultural displacement. These factors significantly affect the transmission of ICH, as they fracture the social and cultural fabric that sustains these practices. Furthermore, as a female-centric tradition in a patriarchal society, Hikaye also faces gender-related challenges. The marginalization of women's voices and experiences can lead to the devaluation and erasure of female-led cultural practices like Hikaye. Gender equality and women's empowerment are therefore key to the preservation of Hikaye.

The struggle of Hikaye against ossification underlines the urgent need for sensitive, community-led efforts to safeguard this valuable ICH. Preservation efforts must recognize the dynamic nature of Hikaye and support its evolution in response to changing societal contexts. They should also address the wider socio-political factors affecting its survival, including gender inequality, conflict, and displacement.

Using the Lens of Decolonization

Decolonization encourages us to move beyond this narrow view and to recognize ICH as dynamic, living practices deeply entwined with people's daily lives, their environment, and their worldviews. It calls for a radical shift in power dynamics, enabling communities to define, value, and safeguard their ICH on their own terms (Waterton and Watson, 2013). This lens can be applied to the cases of the Ute Grandfather Tree, the Capoeira, and the Hikaye to understand paradoxes of value attribution in ICH.

Ute Grandfather Tree

Applying a decolonization perspective to the case of the Ute 'Grandfather Tree' brings these power dynamics into sharper relief. The Ute people's perspective, which saw the tree as a living entity deserving of respect and protection, was essentially overridden by the Western view that perceived the tree as an inanimate object, devoid of cultural significance. This reflects the broader pattern of colonization, where indigenous worldviews and cultural practices have been systematically marginalized, erased, or misappropriated.

The act of physically cutting down the 'Grandfather Tree' can be seen as a form of cultural violence - an erasure of Ute cultural heritage and a violation of their worldview. This mirrors the historical physical dispossession of indigenous peoples from their lands during the colonial era.

On a symbolic level, the erasure of the 'Grandfather Tree' also represents the erasure of Ute epistemology - their way of knowing and understanding the world. This underscores the need for decolonization of knowledge. Recognizing and validating non-Western knowledge systems, like the Ute's holistic understanding of nature-culture relationships, is a crucial step towards more inclusive and equitable heritage practices.

The concept of decolonization also illuminates the power dynamics inherent in the language used to describe and categorize heritage. The term 'Grandfather Tree', for instance, might be dismissed as anthropomorphic or irrational in a Western scientific paradigm. However, from a decolonization perspective, this language articulates a profound truth about the Ute's relationship with nature, emphasizing respect, kinship, and co-existence.

In the broader context of this paper, decolonization invites us to challenge the dominant frameworks of ICH preservation, including the UNESCO-led global heritage regime. While these frameworks have undoubtedly played a significant role in raising awareness about ICH, they also perpetuate Eurocentric perspectives and methodologies, often reducing ICH to static, exoticized 'traditions' that can be inventoried, categorized, and consumed (Smith, 2006; Bortolotto, 2011).

Capoeira

Capoeira, with its origins in the struggles of enslaved Africans in Brazil, embodies a potent symbol of resistance against colonial oppression. As noted earlier, its history has been marked by repression, criminalization, and marginalization, reflective of the colonial attitudes and power structures that devalued Afro-Brazilian culture. Yet, in spite of these challenges, Capoeira has endured and adapted, testament to the resilience of Afro-Brazilian communities.

The journey towards recognition and valorization of Capoeira, both nationally and globally, can be seen as a form of cultural decolonization. By asserting its cultural significance and reclaiming its narrative, Capoeira has resisted and disrupted the Eurocentric value systems that once sought to erase it. However, as it gains global recognition, it must navigate new challenges, particularly the risk of commodification, which can dilute its cultural authenticity and subvert its origins of resistance. Therefore, a decolonizing approach in preserving Capoeira would involve recognizing and mitigating these risks, while also ensuring that Afro-Brazilian communities retain agency and sovereignty over their cultural heritage.

Hikaye

On the other hand, Hikaye, a Palestinian oral narrative tradition, represents a different but equally complex intersection of decolonization and ICH. As an oral tradition primarily practiced by women, Hikaye is vulnerable not only to the eroding forces of modernization but also to the political instability and conflict that has marked much of recent Palestinian history. Its struggle for survival in these challenging circumstances represents a form of resistance against the cultural displacement and erasure often experienced by colonized or oppressed societies.

A decolonizing approach to preserving Hikaye would involve addressing the socio-political forces that threaten its survival. This includes working towards peace and stability in Palestine, supporting the social and cultural fabric that sustains Hikaye, and championing gender equality to ensure women's voices and experiences, as the primary custodians of Hikaye, are recognized and valued. It would also involve facilitating intergenerational dialogue and cultural exchange to ensure the transmission and evolution of Hikaye in a rapidly changing world.

The Paradox of Value Attribution in ICH

The process of value attribution in ICH reveals a paradoxical dynamic. As argued by Smith (2022), recognizing and ascribing value to an ICH is itself an intangible cultural process, shaped by power dynamics, agency, and representation. The process is intrinsically subjective, resting on the whims and values of those in positions of cultural authority.

Take the case of Capoeira and its Afro-Brazilian martial art, dance, and music tradition. Its early history was marred by repression and stigmatization, and this change in value attribution reflects shifting societal attitudes and power dynamics over time. However, as Capoeira gains international recognition, it risks commodification, a common problem in ICH preservation, where cultural practices become objects for tourism and commercial exploitation.

Effectiveness and Limitations of Current Practices in Preserving ICH

ICH preservation practices attempt to balance safeguarding traditions and allowing for their organic evolution. This is not an easy task; preserving ICH in a way that's respectful and authentic often presents numerous challenges. Current preservation practices, while well-intentioned, can freeze cultural practices in time, inhibiting their natural evolution. This limitation is evident in the case of the Hikaye. Efforts to record and document the narratives have unintentionally led to their ossification, as the dynamic, spontaneous aspects of live storytelling are lost in transcription. Moreover, there is often an unequal distribution of resources towards ICH that has international recognition or commercial appeal, neglecting underrepresented or marginalized traditions. The story of Capoeira serves as a stark reminder of this, where a formerly marginalized practice gains resources and attention only after achieving global appeal.

Discussion and Analysis

The case studies highlight the paradoxes, complexities, and challenges in ICH preservation. The paradox of value attribution in Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) that Smith (2022) identifies unveils a complex dynamic underpinning our approach to cultural preservation and understanding. The very act of recognizing, categorizing, and ascribing value to ICH is not only an administrative or academic exercise but is, in itself, a manifestation of intangible culture. It's an intricate dance of societal norms, shared understandings, and tacit knowledge that evolve over time, laden with the nuances of power dynamics, agency, and representation.

Value attribution is an inherently subjective process influenced by cultural, historical, and social contexts. It is not a mere assessment of aesthetic or historical merit; it is a judgement deeply intertwined with societal attitudes, ideologies, and power relations. Those who wield cultural authority, including scholars, policymakers, and institutions, play a significant role in this process. Their decisions on what aspects of culture are deemed worthy of recognition and preservation can reinforce certain narratives, values, and power structures, while marginalizing or erasing others.

This is where the paradox lies: while the aim of safeguarding ICH is to preserve cultural diversity and foster mutual respect among cultures, the process of value attribution can inadvertently perpetuate cultural hegemony and inequality. When cultural authority is concentrated in the hands of a few, whether it be institutions or dominant social groups, there is a risk that their biases and perspectives will unduly shape the cultural canon. This can lead to the overrepresentation of certain cultural practices, narratives, or groups, while others remain unrecognized and undervalued.

For instance, a Western-oriented perspective might prioritize ICH forms that align with Western notions of art, heritage, or culture, neglecting those that don't fit within these frameworks. Similarly, elite or majority groups within a society might have their cultural practices recognized and valued more than those of marginalized or minority groups. This paradox can perpetuate existing social inequalities and hinder the recognition and preservation of a truly diverse range of ICH.

Therefore, navigating this paradox calls for a critical, reflexive approach to value attribution in ICH. It requires ongoing dialogue and engagement with diverse cultural stakeholders, including communities, practitioners, and scholars, to ensure a multiplicity of perspectives and voices are considered. It also involves continually reassessing and challenging our own biases, assumptions, and blind spots in our engagement with ICH. By doing so, we can work towards a more inclusive, equitable, and dynamic practice of ICH preservation.

The cultural iceberg model is a compelling metaphor to visualize the complexity of culture and its manifestations. According to this model, culture is like an iceberg: the part that can be seen above the water's surface represents observable cultural elements, such as language, food, literature, folklore, and dance. However, below the water's surface lies a much larger portion of the iceberg, representing less visible and more deeply ingrained cultural elements, like family roles, core values, notions of modesty, childrearing practices, pride, biases, beliefs, and assumptions.

Applying this model to the discussion of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) underlines the nuanced and layered nature of these cultural practices. It underscores the interplay between the visible and invisible aspects of culture and the challenges this poses for value attribution and preservation. For instance, in the case of Capoeira, the dance and music elements are highly visible and widely recognized. Yet, beneath these observable aspects lie a wealth of deeper cultural values and beliefs that may be less apparent. These include a legacy of resistance against oppression, a celebration of Afro-Brazilian identity and community, and complex notions of masculinity, power, and spirituality. Recognizing and appreciating these less visible aspects is crucial for a comprehensive understanding and authentic representation of Capoeira as an ICH.