The Division Classes The Distinctive Aspects

The Distinctive Aspect of The Division Classes

1. Psychology

According to the American Psychological Association, Psychology refers to the scientific study of behavior and mind. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and has several sports, human development, social behavior, cognitive process, health, and sports. Furthermore, the American Psychological Association is a professional body with the mission to improve people's lives by disseminating and advancing psychological knowledge (Vygotsky, 20). Within the American Psychological Association are over 50 divisions ranging from comparative and neuroscience psychology, spirituality to exercise, to behavioral psychology (Vygotsky, 21). According to psychologists, there is no specific study on the way people behave and think. However, there is a varying school of thought that has developed in the field of psychology, shaping how human behaviors are investigated. For instance, according to psychologists, some behaviors can be attributed to genetic factors, while others may be attributed to early childhood experiences. The majority of psychologists concentrate their careers on a specific facet of psychology like cognitive or developmental psychology. Various subdivisions/classes within psychology are interconnected to aid the understanding of mental and behavioral processes (Vygotsky, 33). They include the followings:

A. Biological Domain

Psychobiology, which is also referred to as biopsychology, is studying behavior and mental processes through biological principles. The study evaluates how biology influences human behavior. Most biological psychologists focus on determining how behavior is influenced by the structure and functions of the nervous system (Vygotsky, 39). Biological psychology encompasses several fields like neuropsychology, behavioral neuroscience, and cognitive neuroscience. Apart from psychobiology that typically concentrates on the immediate cause of human conduct based on physiological processes, evolutionary psychology seeks to determine the final biological cause of the behavior. The study of human behavior within the evolutionary context has its origin from Charles Darwin, who was the discoverer of evolution through natural selection (Vygotsky, 122).

Subsequently, evolutionary psychology, particularly the evolutionary psychology of humans, has benefited from resurgence within the recent past decades. Behavior has to manifest meaningful genetic cause to be considered a subject of evolution through natural selection. In a nutshell, every human culture should express behavior caused genetically due to minute genetic differences within human groups (Vygotsky, 24). Several evolutionary psychologists predict a possible behavioral outcome on a specific cased based on the evolutionary theory approach followed by experimental observations to determine if the results match with the theory. Also, due to difficulties in demonstrating if given human traits are naturally selected, most of the evolutionary psychologists have, in many situations, assumed that the behaviors they experiment with contain genetic determinants (Vygotsky, 18). However, evolutionary psychology also has a challenge because human traits evolved a long time ago in human history under different social and environmental conditions. No one has a precise and clear understanding of what those conditions were—rendering difficult predictions about adaptive behavior. Otherwise, there are also other areas of human behavior where evolution can make predictions, for instance, relationships between kin, mate choice, social organization, memory, parenting, status, and friendship (Vygotsky, 22). Notably, evolutionary psychologists succeeded in finding experimental relations between the expectations and the observations. For example, one case study to determine differences in mate preference between gentles and ladies found that ladies prefer earning potential factors more than gentles, while gentles, on the other hand, choose potential reproductive factors higher than ladies within their prospective mates. Such predictions were the same as that of evolutionary theory except for a few deviations in the cultures (Vygotsky, 29).

On the other hand, psychologists interested in both the physiological aspects of the sensory system and the psychological lessons of sensory information may work within the confines of sensation and perception—rendering perception and sensation research interdisciplinary.

B. Cognitive Domain

Through cognitive revolution, psychologists have refocused their concentration on understanding the mental processes and the mind that underlies behavior. Therefore, cognitive psychology focuses on studying thoughts or cognitions and their relationships to our actions and experiences (Vygotsky, 38). Like biological psychology, cognitive psychology is also comprehensive in scope and usually involves scientists from diverse disciplines. Therefore, cognitive psychologists are interested in researching several topics from problem-solving to attention to memory and language. Equally, psychologists employ various approaches to study the issues.

C. Developmental Domain

Developmental psychology refers to the study of development through the lifespan. The psychologist within this class is interested in the processes that relate to maturation. Nonetheless, the study focus is not restricted to physical changes due to aging only, but they also concentrate on moral thinking, cognitive skills, psychological attributes, and social behavior (Vygotsky, 102). Initially, psychologists focused basically on changes that took place by reaching adulthood, enhancing insights into the differences in cognitive, physical, and social capacities between young children and adults—taking, for example, Jean Piaget's research which established that demonstration of object performance is not associated with very young children (Vygotsky, 16). To illustrate, if one shows an adult a toy, then hides it under the table, the adult knows the toy still exists; however, children tend to behave as if it no longer exists.

Alternatively, there is an increasing interest in establishing changes that occur later in life. Thus, it could reflect the shifting population demographics, particularly from developed countries (Vygotsky, 34). Subsequently, as more populations live longer lives, the number of people with much more advanced age also increases. According to estimates, in 2010, there were around 40 million people in unites states whose age was 65 years and beyond. On the other hand, it is estimated that by 2020, the number is anticipated to be around 55 million people. While in 2050, the number is expected to rise to nearly 90 million people. Besides, learning and behaviorism are also other critical areas of study within the development domain. Learning is considered a behavior change shaped through experience and primarily accomplished through classical conditioning (Vygotsky, 56).

D. Social and Personality Psychology Domain

Social psychology denotes the study of how individual feelings, behaviors, and thoughts are influenced by the imagined, implied, or actual presence of others. In the social and personality psychology domain, psychology focuses on how such thoughts, beliefs, feelings, intentions, and goals are structured and how the psychological factors influence individual interaction with others (Vygotsky, 25). Consequently, personality psychology is also another major field of interest study within this domain. Personality is the long-standing patterns and traits that push a person to consistently behave, feel, and think in a particular way. One's personality is a unique identifier from others.

E. Mental and Physical Health Domain

This is the domain that most people relate to psychology, mental disorders, and counseling. It involves studying abnormal psychology that concentrates on abnormal behaviors and thoughts and treatment and counseling techniques (Vygotsky, 69). It also includes varying recommendations on how to live a healthy life and cope up with the stress. Besides clinical psychology, a sub-division of this domain focuses on the diagnostic and treatment measures of psychological challenges and other behavioral problems. Consequently, they are considered to be the most applied area within psychology. Moreover, the domain has another sub-division referred to as health psychology that typically focuses on how the interaction of sociocultural factors, biological factors, and psychological factors affect an individual's health (Vygotsky, 99).

Other Psychological Subfields include Sport and Exercise Psychology, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, and Forensic Psychology.

2. Intro Sociology

Sociology refers to the study of social change, social life, and human behavior and their relation with other patterns of reaction and people (Greenwood, 51). Therefore, sociologists evaluate the structure of organizations, societies, and groups, together with the interaction of people with such contexts (Coe, 74). Usually, the subject matter to sociology cuts across hostile mob to intimate family, from sociology of sports to sociology of work, and from religious cults to organized crimes. Subsequently, sociologists know forces of resistance and social change, social inequality, how social systems work, and patterns of behavior (Greenwood, 31). Sociology, therefore, entails various sub-divisions as below:

a. Theoretical Sociology.

Various perceptions and ideologies make up theoretical sociology. The perceptions may be macro or micro. The macro perceptions involve more considerable life aspects while micro involves very minute life aspects. However, they complement one another. Also, the functional perception usually accounts for overwhelming peace and harmony within society, limiting societal chaos (Greenwood, 21).

On the other hand, the interaction perspective refers to social communication through perceptions, dressing, and ideas (Coe, 75). Through it, society is categorized into groups. Lastly is the conflict perspective, which occurs where more than one person's perception is encountered. Usually, human beings would disagree with one another at some moment over a particular thing (Greenwood, 21).

b. Historical Sociology

Historical sociology involves any historical aspect of past events. It refers to studying the ancient past and any historical elements that relate to sociology (Coe, 74).

c. Knowledge Sociology

The environment where one resides can determine and shape one's knowledge; therefore, society contributes heavily in amending a person's ideological view. Moreover, political, social, and cultural norms also influence one's ideologies (Greenwood, 11).

d. Criminology Sociology

Criminology sociology involves the study of how the criminal mind works. It establishes various crime branches, government policies, criminal records, and their punishments. Some of the fundamental issues studied within this section include; how and why the crime occurred and the kind of the crime (Coe, 76).

e. Political sociology

During the Aristotle period, think tanks made various studies on tangible political phenomena. They evaluated how politics play out within different cultures and varying social structures. Therefore, political sociology can be referred to as the study of interrelations between political institutions and social systems, polity, and society (Greenwood, 5).

f. Rural Sociology.

This is usually a unique area of sociology that deals with the rural society or the village's society. Additionally, it can be referred to as the sociology of life in rural, in a rural environment. It involves the relationships of people within a rural setting (Coe, 75). Therefore, the study enhances knowledge about the rural social interactions that contribute to rural social development (Greenwood, 41).

3. Sociological Research Methods

Most sociologists have braved to study the world, identify the problem and plan out to solve it. In such a case, research methods are used to design a consistent study, most likely a systematic, detailed, and scientific procedure to carry out the research and obtain data. In any sociological study/examination, it is very vital to plan the research design. However, a social researcher must always be careful and alert when joining a new environment to conduct research (Greenwood, 13). For instance, there are some times one can carry out interviews, while sometimes one has only to observe depending on the prevailing conditions. When dealing with the participants, the researcher should understand that some participants should fully be informed, while others need not know that they are being observed (Coe, 74). For instance, a sociologist cannot match into the crime-prone neighborhood at midnight shouting names of the gang members (Greenwood, 11). If a sociologist researcher heads into a coffee shop and informs the barrister that he will be observed, the barrister would typically behave. Such kinds of effects are referred to as the Hawthorne effect. Individuals will permanently alter their behavior whenever they know they are under some observation for study purposes (Greenwood, 7).

During the study designs, sociologists would generally pick one method from the four major methods widely used. They include; survey, field research, use of secondary data, and experiments. However, every form has its own merits and demerits and the context in which a particular plan can suit best.

a. Survey

A survey is one of the research methods used to collect information from participants that respond to a series of questions in the form of opinions and behavior. In the survey, some scientists would collect data in the form of a questionnaire. While conducting sociological research, a survey is one of the most used data collection methods because anonymity can easily be achieved and observed (Greenwood, 61). Surveys are used to target a particular set of the population that is the focus of the study. Most sociologists prefer to survey a smaller sample of the people or a manageable subject that can be used as an accurate representation of the general target population (Coe, 76).

b. Field Research

Most of the sociological works rarely take place in offices or confined areas. Instead, sociologists go out to the society and villages and interact with the subjects from where they stay, work, and play (Greenwood, 44). Field research, therefore, means the collection of basic information or data from the natural environment minus conducting surveys or carrying out laboratory experiments. To conduct field research, the researcher must be ready to step into a new domain to experience, participate, and observe various phenomena. According to Rothman, during field research, participant observation where researchers accompany multiple groups on their routine activities as part of the team to watch them is critical. Through it, a sociologist can obtain first-hand information without any Hawthorne effect (Greenwood, 19).

c. Experiments.

The researchers typically conduct experiments to either approve or disapprove of a theory and investigate or test a hypothesis. Experiments are subdivided into two; that is, laboratory-based experiments and field experiments. Within the laboratory setting, time is taken to collect the information and can be regulated by adjusting various instruments and specimens used; however, in the field, the experiments are more likely to take more time because the processes cannot be controlled. Nonetheless, field experiments are considered more accurate since there is a lack of human interference (Greenwood, 36).

d. Secondary data analysis.

Although most sociologists conduct primary research works, some also contribute to the discipline's knowledge through secondary data analysis. Sometimes, sociologists can research by studying various historians, teachers, economists, early sociologists, and even doctors. They do this through reading and analyzing multiple newspapers, articles, journals, periodicals, and magazines from any time within history (Greenwood, 23). One of the merits of secondary data is its nonreactive research nature because the researcher does not directly contact the subjects in the study, hence cannot alter their conduct or influence their behavior (Coe, 75).

4. Medical Sociology

Medical sociology is also called health sociology. It deals with the examination of consequences of illness and health resulting from social causes. The central core areas of investigation are the social conducts of health practitioners and patients, social determinants of disease and health, relation of health practitioners to other social institutions, health social policies, and social duties of health institutions (Greenwood, 12). Various critical roles played by the social factors to influence and determine the societies', groups, and individual's health makes medical sociology very essential. Social situations and conditions can also enhance prospects of health maintenance and prevention of disease and may cause and promote the possibility of disability and illness (Greenwood, 10). The united state's physicians became among the first people to carry out works in medical sociology instead of the sociologist who did not find fieldwork attractive. However, by the late 1940s, many things changed due to enacting laws providing federal funding of large amounts to support and enhance joint research between medical doctors and sociologists. In the beginning, medical sociology works concentrated on getting appropriate solutions applicable to clinical medicine (Greenwood, 11).