Environmental Science Contemporary Issues

FINAL EXAM

Final Exam

Environmental Policy

List and define the stages of the policy cycle including what and who is involved. Explain how environmental health research is a component of the policy cycle. How does environmental health research contribute to the implementation of sound environmental policies? Discuss one major environmental law and its effects. 

The policy cycle could be broken into five key stages. The said stages, according to Mitchel (2018), are agenda setting, option formulation, decision/adoption, implementation, and evaluation. When it comes to agenda setting, it would be prudent to note that this happens to be the stage at which concerns that require intervention are highlighted. Some of those who could be involved at this stage are scientists. Next, when it comes to option formulation, the policy’s structure could be defined. At this point, the relevant considerations could be inclusive of, but they are not limited to, the key objectives, the estimated costs, as well as implications. Key stakeholders at this stage could be inclusive of government technocrats. Third, the decision/adoption stage has got to do with the issuance of the relevant approvals for adoption. Stakeholders at this stage could be inclusive of the relevance government agencies, legislative bodies, etc. Fourth, we have implementation. In basic terms, it is during implementation that the achievement of the necessary objectives as well as goals is facilitated. Thus, during this phase, key actions could be inclusive of, but they are not limited to, the management of financial and human resources. Stakeholders in this phase could comprise of the relevant partners from the private sector, NGOs, etc. Lastly, we have the evaluation stage. This is a crucial stage in as far as the assessment of the policy’s success and/or effectiveness is concerned. Thus, it is during this phase that there would be deliberate attempts to assess the policy’s utility, worth, as well as merit. Stakeholders at this point could include those impacted upon by a program.

To a large extent, environmental health research happens to be a policy cycle component owing to the fact that it involves the identification of the various concerns that would require intervention. Thus, it could be considered part and parcel of agenda setting. Without environmental health research, it would be difficult to establish the validity and extent of certain problems or concerns and, thus, the need for intervention.

One example of a crucial environmental law is The Clean Air Act. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency – EPA (2020), this happens to be a “comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources.” Thus, thanks to this particular law, the EPA and states work together in efforts to formulate programs meant to reign in air pollution via the embrace of innovative science and technology tools. It is important to note that as the EPA (2020) observes, under this particular law, the latest science happens to be the basis for air quality standards.

Injury

Why do we need to be concerned about injuries? Discuss the significance of unintentional injuries for morbidity and mortality globally and in the United States. How do unintentional injuries rank in comparison with other causes of mortality? Describe the potential economic, social, and emotional costs of unintentional injuries.

There are multiple reasons for us to be concerned about injuries. This is more so the case given that injuries are a leading cause of death not only in the United States, but across the world as well. They are also a leading cause of disability. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC (2021), in the year 2018 alone, unintentional injuries were responsible for a total of 24.5 million emergency departed visits in the U.S. The number of deaths attributed to unintentional injuries in the year 2019 was 173,000 in the U.S. alone (CDC, 2021). Recent global morbidity and mortality data related to unintentional injuries is hard to come by. As per the most recent available data, the World Health Organization (WHO) is categorical that unintentional injuries are responsible for close to 80% of all injury-related deaths (Ramirez, Hyder, Herbert, and Stevans, 2012). CDC (2021) observes that within the country, injury happens to be a prominent death cause among individuals of age 1-44. More precisely, CDC (2021) observes that “unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death for Americans aged 1-44 years old.” Some of the most common unintentional injuries, as CDC (2021) further observes, are inclusive of, but they are not limited to, unintentional falls, motor vehicle accidents, poisoning that could be deemed intentional, etc.

There are multiple emotional, social, as well as economic costs of unintentional injuries. On the economic front, unintentional injuries overburden healthcare systems and impose great burden on the economy of a nation. For instance, unintentional injuries, according to the World Health Organization – WHO (2021), “place a massive burden on national economies, costing countries billions of US dollars each year in health care, and lost productivity.” It is for this reason that WHO (2021) further observes that Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) ought to be cognizant of the economic impact of unintentional injuries (as well as violence) and how to prevent them. On the social front, the effects of unintentional injuries permeate into families, workplaces, public institutions, etc. This is more so the case given that those who sustain or succumb to unintentional injuries are productive members of the society, bread winners in familial contexts, etc. At the emotional level, those who experience severe unintentional injuries could be left with permanent injuries and disabilities. This could effectively affect their ability to fend for themselves and their families. This could effectively affect their emotional health and wellbeing. For instance, as Kendrick et al. (2011) observe, “psychological disorders are common post injury and are associated with poorer functional and occupational outcomes” (p 79).

Resources

Discuss drinking water in the United States. Where does the water come from? Describe the four stages of water treatment. Which step is critical for deactivation of potential pathogens? What potential pathogens are deactivated by this step and which have the potential to survive (give specific organisms)? What agency regulates drinking water in the U.S.?

A common saying goes: water is life. To a large extent, the human body cannot be able to survive without water. This is more so the case given that water happens to be instrumental in the proper functioning of a wide range of body systems. In the U.S. most people are aware of the benefits of drinking water on a regular basis. However, the relevance of ensuring clean access to drinking water cannot be overstated. From a general perspective, drinking water in the country happens to be safe – with EPA (2018) observing that the US happens to have one of the safest as well as most reliable drinking water supplies in the world. It would be prudent to note that most of the country’s drinking water is sourced from rivers, lakes, and ground water. From these, and other sources, water is then passed through various treatment systems spread across the nation. In essence, the treatment process embraced for the most part has four steps. According to the CDC (2015), the first step is referred to as coagulation and flocculation. Here, the negative charge of the various impurities and particles found in untreated water is neutralized via the use of certain chemicals that, as CDC (2015) further observes, bear a negative charge. This results in the formation of larger particles (referred to as floc) as the opposite charged chemicals and substances bind together. This particular step is followed by what is referred to as sedimentation. Here, as a consequence of its weight, the floc sinks to the bottom. In the next step, referred to as filtration, the water is passed through special filters so as to ensure that chemicals and other smaller or dissolved particles as well as viruses, bacteria, and parasites are removed (CDC, 2015). The very last step is disinfection which, according to CDC (2015), involves the addition of a disinfectant (such as chlorine) so as to ensure that all the viruses, bacteria, as well as parasites that are still present are killed. This, thus, happens to be the crucial step in as far as the deactivating of viruses, bacteria, as well as parasites is concerned. Some of the organisms killed in this last stage (i.e. via chlorination) are inclusive of E. coli. However, enteric viruses could still survive this step. The agency responsible for the regulation of drinking water in the U.S. is the United States Environmental Protection Agency – EPA.

Climate Change

What are human health effects due to climate change? What chronic and communicable diseases are increasing due to climate change? What steps can be taken as a population (not individual) to reduce climate change due to anthropogenic sources?  How do international treaties address global climate change?

Climate change has been shown to have a huge impact on human health and wellbeing. According to the U.S. Global Change Research Program (2016), human health could be impacted upon in two primary ways by climate change. To begin with, the said change could adapt not only the severity, but also the frequency of health conditions and complications that happen to be already impacted upon by weather or climate factors. On the other hand, according to the U.S. Global Change Research Program (2016), human health could also in this case be impacted upon via the creation of “unprecedented or unanticipated health problems or health threats in places where they have not previously occurred.”

Various communicable as well as chronic diseases have been on the increase as a consequence of climate change. Examples of the said communicable diseases are inclusive of, but they are not limited to, Lyme disease, Zika virus, yellow fever, dengue fever, as well as malaria. However, apart from these communicable diseases, climate change has also been linked to the worsening of chronic ailments such as lung disease and heart disease.

There are various strategies that could be embraced, from a population perspective, to minimize climate change brought triggered by humans. It is important to note that as Mitchel (2018) points out, according to what is referred to as the Anthropogenic Climate Change Theory, those who bar the greatest responsibility in as far as climate change is concerned are human beings. This, according to the author, is more so the case given their involvement in the burning of fossil fuels. Towards this end, one of the solutions that would be viable is the embrace of electric cars and the gradual phasing out of diesel and petrol-powered automobiles. Alongside this measure, yet another approach that could be pursued on this front is the increased utilization of renewable energy sources. The said energy sources are inclusive of, but they are not limited to, solar power and wind power.

In seeking to address climate change, there are various approaches that have been pursued in the past. These are inclusive of international treaties. For instance, in the past we have had the Kyoto Protocol. At present, one of the well-known conventions happens to be the Paris Agreement. To a large extent, these international treaties seek to, amongst other things, limit global warming and discourage man’s risky maneuvers or moves to tamper with climate systems.

Food Safety

Discuss microbial sources of foodborne illness and the risk factors for foodborne illness. Describe methods used for the prevention of foodborne illnesses and what type of food microorganisms they can kill. In your discussion, include viruses vs. bacteria vs. worms vs. other agents and how they vary. Also, discuss HACCP. 

There are various microbial sources of food illness. From a general perspective, these are the various parasites, viruses, as well as bacteria, protozoa and fungi that have the potential to cause most foodborne illnesses. However, according to the Food and Drug Administration – FDA (2020), two of the most frequent pathogens that happen to be foodborne are viruses and bacteria. Viruses could be inclusive of hepatitis A and norovirus, while bacteria could be inclusive of E. coli, Listeria, and Salmonella. As the FDA further observes, nobody is immune from foodborne illnesses – essentially meaning that all persons are at risk of the same. It would, however, be prudent to note that there are specific risk factors that have been associated with increased risk of foodborne illnesses. These are inclusive of; drinking fruit juices that have not been pasteurized, consumption of raw sprouts, drinking unpasteurized milk, eating raw foods, etc.