Gated Communities Around the World

Duneier, M. "Sidewalk" (p. 115-154)

Summary of the author's argument

Despite the reluctance of many more affluent citizens to accept them, there have been growing numbers of homeless people in general and homeless minority member in particular eking out a living in inner urban settings through recycling and scavenging. These processes are especially evident in New York City where the homeless were pressured by Amtrak police to leave Pennsylvania Station, creating a need for them to forge a new way of life on the peripheries. For instance, Duneir points out that, "Today, the sidewalks around Sixth Avenue and Eighth Street are bustling with many minorities from other parts of the city and the suburbs who must be assimilated into the neighborhood's sidewalk life" (p. 128). The process of assimilation was facilitated by laws that allowed the sale of written materials on sidewalks by otherwise-unemployable residents, a process that the author argues has been mutually beneficial.

The evidence (or basis) of the argument

Many cities feature neighborhoods that are generally regarded as being on the "wrong side of the tracks," and these neighborhoods can attract others by virtue of their forbidden lure. In this regard, Duneir notes that, "Every society has its places that give a clear indication of what it will and will not accept. Eighth Street encompasses much that is considered underground or off-limits in our society, and it draws many youths of various races and ethnicities who want to be in contact with these outer limits" (p. 118).

Reaction or analysis

By interacting with these "outer limits," mainstream residents enjoy an alternative experience in their own communities that is not available to them otherwise, a process that also benefits the marginalized people who manage to earn a living there.

Low, S. "The Edge and the Center: Gated Communities and the Discourse of Urban Fear." In Low and Lawrence-Zuniga, eds., The Anthropology of space and place: Locating Culture. (p. 385-407)

Summary of the author's argument

The fear of the inner city has resulted in a recurrence of the "white flight" that drove millions of white Americans into the suburbs during the latter half of the 20th century, a fear that remains operative today. To date, though, much of the research concerning city environments has been focused on city centers rather than the intersection between the city itself and its surrounding environs, a tendency that requires a fresh approach to better understand the dynamics and implications that are involved. For example, according to Low, "The shift to a spatial analysis of the city requires reconsidering the separation in that contradictions and conflicts at the center are often drawn more vividly at the edge. [T]he cultural diversity and racial tensions of the center are reflected in the segregation and social homogeneity of the suburbs" (p. 387). In support of this argument, the author presents some compelling evidence as discussed below.

The evidence (or basis) of the argument

In support of the foregoing argument, Low cites the proliferation of suburban gated communities as being proof positive of the enduring fear of violence that is believed to emanate from city centers.

Reaction or analysis

Notwithstanding America's democratic heritage, the United States remains a class-based society that is divided along racial and economic lines as exemplified by gated communities.

Caldeira, T. "Fortified Enclaves: The New Urban Segregation." In Low, ed, Theorizing the City: The New Urban Anthropology Reader. (p. 83-107)

Summary of the author's argument

Not only does the United States incarcerate more of its citizens that any other industrialized country in the world, it has created an urban environment that compels many of its citizens to incarcerate themselves in so-called "fortified enclaves," a trend that is also taking place in other emerging nations where the division between rich and poor is pronounced. In sum, the author argues that in response to the growing fear of violence, many residents of cities have essentially sequestered themselves in these fortified enclaves in ways that clearly demarcate the boundaries between the have's and have not's in society.

The evidence (or basis) of the argument

In support of her argument, Caldeira cites the examples of the manner in which Sao Paulo, Brazil has become a city characterized by architectural and social indicators that clearly delineate who belongs where, with the more affluent enjoying the best that Brazilian society has to offer in essentially self-sustaining communities.

Reaction or analysis

In some ways, making the obvious argument that increasing numbers of former residents of cities have sought refuge in fortified enclaves is tantamount to saying that there is still unrest in the Middle East. Throughout history, rich people have sought refuge from the travails of the workaday people by building higher walls and deeper moats, and the recent trends are simply an extension of this tendency.

Low, S. "Spatializing Culture: The Social Production and Social Construction of Public Space in Costa Rica." In Low, ed, Theorizing the City: The New Urban Anthropology Reader. (p. 111-137)

Summary of the author's argument

Based on her extensive professional background in ethnography, Low argues that any analysis of the built environment must take into account the social and economic institutional forces that affect residents in an ongoing fashion in order to interpret the symbolic meaning of these forces in shaping modern society. Based on her primary research, Low concludes that undesirable and criminal activities are viewed differently in certain enclaves and that demarcating these enclaves through the built environment has become characteristic of a growing number of metropolitan areas around the world, including most especially two communities in Costa Rica as discussed below.

The evidence (or basis) of the argument

In support of her argument, Low cites the examples of the Plaza de la Culture and Parque Central in Costa Rica, as good examples of how the urban built environment can be used to isolate certain types of activities and behaviors that may be viewed as undesirable by a mainstream society into various public spaces that are characterized by different sets of values concerning what is acceptable and what is not.

Reaction or analysis

The historic record confirms that people will do whatever it takes to earn a living, even if this requires activities that would not otherwise be regarded as acceptable, but the people who frequent the aforementioned neighborhoods of Costa Rica are well aware of what takes place in these built environments.

Review of Zukin, S. The Cultures of Cities. (p. 1-48)

Summary of the author's argument

In this chapter, "Whose culture? Whose city?," Zukin makes the point that the formerly public spaces in many cities are being co-opted by private enterprises for their own gains, a process that works to the detriment of the public in general and of city residents in particular. Countering this trend has been a growing effort by cities of all sizes and location to invest in cultural resources that will enhance the quality of life for residents and attract increased travel and tourism. In support of this argument, Zukin cites a number of recent trends that have reshaped the urban landscape in recent years, including those discussed below.