China's one-child policy and its effects on Han Chinese population

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Han China's One Child Policy

The population of China has been exploding in the last several decades, with reports of more than 549 million people in the early 20th century alone (Smith, 1991). The population reached and exceeded 1 billion in the 1980s, more than one-fifth of the world's total population (Smith, 1991:116). China's tremendous population growth has resulted in many problems. One major concern is that there is not enough land to support the number of people living in the country. The population growth has continued despite a lack of increases in the amount of "cultivatable land" thus there is only half as much land per capita for example in 1979 as there was in 1949, and the number has continued to decline through the nineties (Smith, 1991).

The government of China has consistently worked to develop viable policies to combat the overpopulation problems. The rising population has been blamed for everything from a lack of development to realization of true financial power among the world elite. The majority of plans developed to combat overpopulation have been geared toward family planning.

Because of the tremendous growth, the Chinese government needed to make policies to combat the quick growing numbers of Chinese citizens. In the early 1979, the Family Planning Commission of China implemented the "one-child policy" as a solution for overpopulation. However, the "one-child policy" is only applied to Han and the minorities are not restricted by this policy. Thus the Han Chinese are unfairly discriminated against, and the gender balance among this group of the population is decreasing in recent years.

By definition the policy states that married couples in urban settings are limited to having only one child; married couples in rural areas are allowed to have two children if the first child is a girl. This is strictly enforced in the major cities, but rural governments tend to be more relaxed since extra labor is needed in farming communities. Nonetheless, fines are imposed on parents who want more than one child. With a population billion, the Chinese view this as a practical policy.

The one child policy was implemented because the government believed it was the only viable policy to reduce the number of birthrates and keep the population at a relative constant (approximately 1 billion). However, since adoption of the policy many problems have come to light.

Among the problems with instituting this policy is the fact that having a large family for many Han Chinese is the cultural norm (Smith, 1991). Because the policy is structured to target only one population (the Han Chinese) there is also the possibility that the population can become "grotesquely unbalanced" and that "each able bodied person would have to support two parents and four grandparents" (Smith, 1991:119).

The government believes however that this policy or some version of it is still a viable option for controlling the outrageous population explosion occurring in China. Some of the advantages, disadvantages and avenues for future change are explored in greater detail below.

Advantages

The primary advantage of the one child policy as described by government officials working to support it is that it has resulted in a decline in fertility rates among the Han Chinese. This naturally results in a lower birthrate, which the policy was originally created to do. The policy has in fact, seen some promising results. From a statistical perspective the policy has been moderately successful. As Smith (1991) points out during the 1960s the net growth of China's population was more than 20 per 1,000 (birthrate compared with death rate) and stood even higher in 1971; however the number has halved and in 1985 was reported at 5 per 1,000 (p. 121). The fertility rate in China has also decreased relatively steadily, with the highest decline occurring within cities (Smith, 1991).

In 1970 statistics indicated that the birth rate for first births was 20% and for third births the rate was 62%, indicating a large majority of families having a minimum of three children (Smith, 1991). However by the mid 1980s this policy had already changed, with 56% of births reported as first births and only 19% reported as third births (Smith, 1991).

On paper, the policy is achieving its goals, which were among others to reduce the fertility and birthrates in China. The policy has also resulted in a more widespread adoption of the notion or cultural ideal that it is acceptable to have a smaller family of only one child, or in some instances two children.

The policy has also enforced the notion that it is important for government and citizens to work together to develop solutions to the massive explosion and overgrowth in the population realized in recent years. For a reduction in the population to occur, it is essential that some sort of collaboration be established between government officials and the public, if a true reduction in the population is to be realized.

Ethnographic/Social Considerations

Hall (1987) examined the effects of the one child policy from a cultural/anthropological and ethnographic perspective. Her study revealed that such policies unwittingly result in a cultural change in attitudes, beliefs and even behaviors exhibited by children. For example, couples may lean toward the decision that having more than one child "cramps their economic style" and that may lead to the one child being spoiled and the 'babyhood' period being drawn out (Hall, 1987).

The author suggests that a country full of only children will result in children who grow into adults that will be self-centered and less likely to be concerned with the welfare of the country as a whole, and more likely to be concerned with their own personal satisfaction. This goes against the Chinese ideology that it is important to serve the country rather than oneself, and Hall suggests that "a citizenry made up of only children could spell trouble" (Hall, 1987:44).

There has been some push by the Chinese government and the Ministry of Civil Affairs in recent years to provide more funding for orphanages so they can provide better care and provisions for the children living in them (Banghan et. al, 1998). Also underway is a test program in six counties where a voluntary birth planning policy is being put in place, where birth planning is encouraged without strict adherence to quotas or fines and punishments for families that choose not to participate in the program (Sly, 1998; Banghan et. al, 1998). These policies might lessen the changes for abandonment. Revision of the adoption law will also help.

Greenhalgh (2003) suggests that the one-child policy is about "the nation's dreams for achieving wealth, modernity, and global power through selective absorption of Western science and technology" (163). The author suggests that modern science and technology are responsible for highlighting the connection between population and prosperity, and suggests that philosophers and scientists have come to conclude that human welfare, order and utility is enhanced when population controls are in place.

Population in China has been characterized by government officials as a 'national crisis' suggesting that a drastic solution be required for the well being of the Chinese people as a whole and the economic and global ascent of the nation (Greenhalgh, 2003).

Li (2002) presents evidence from the China Health and Nutrition Survey as well as other resources to provide ethnographic information regarding the recent effects of the one child policy among the Han Chinese. China has changed substantially from a demographic perspective from a country that was highly fertile to one that is considered a "nearly below replacement level of fertility" (Li, 2002).

Social Consequences

Gradually as the net population in China failed to decline during the 1980s the policy became stricter and second births were forbidden in most cases; enforcement of the policy also became very strict and mandatory IUD insertions, abortions and sterilization became the norm rather than the exception to the rule (Li, 2002). However, coercive measures to enforce the policy were withdrawn in 1984; restrictions were also lifted and in some rural provinces couples were allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl (Li, 2002).

During the late 1980s the policy became even more lax when the State Family Planning Commission declared that national policy would allow a second child be born in all "single daughter households" in rural areas (Li, 2002). My early 1990 three variations of this policy applied to the Han Chinese (Li, 2002). Economic incentives were applied along with the one child policy. Commonly used incentives including food rations, subsidies and housing/education assistance for many urban families, and more land for rural families (Li, 2002).

Initial problems with the policy included a lack of uniformity. In some areas the policy was more strictly administered that in others. Generally the policy is not as well enforced in rural areas because families growing up on farms generally need the extra help afforded by having more than one child. However in urban cities the policy is typically strictly enforced.

Studies suggest that the sex ratio of newborn children is climbing and has been climbing since the mid 1980s, with more boys being born than men (Li, 2002). Such imbalanced gender representation can have "negative social implications" including men not being able to find female partners (Li, 2002). There is some evidence to suggest that women are forced into prostitution or kidnapped and sold as wives for men living in remote areas where the ratio of men to women is high (Li, 2002; PRB, 2001). There are many that speculate that a one child policy raises the pressure to create a culture that is based on sex ratios.

Benefits vs. Problems

Do the benefits of the policy outweigh the problems? Statistically they do not. The fertility rate has declined among Han Chinese women in China. In fact the fertility rate is the lowest among all developed nations.

This has not however significantly impeded the net population growth. Rather the population in China continues to rise. In addition the Han population is becoming imbalanced, in part because the culture is one that supports the notion that a male is more valuable than a female member of the family. This is due in part to the fact that many consider a male member of the family critical for the social security and economic well being of the family over time.

Cultural and social reform will be necessary for change to be realized. In addition the ratio of males to females is rising in the country, causing problems including increased prostitution and evidence that women are being 'sold' as wives (Li, 2002).

The policy has created more pressure on females to produce male children, and has resulted in widespread abandonment of female children as well as female infanticide. This trend is unlikely to change unless the cultural norms of society change in a manner that encourages the birth of females as equal in value to male children.

Government and Han Chinese

How will the government and Han Chinese solve the problems that currently exist within the country? Various methods have been attempted and discarded in the past. Among these include forced coercion on the part of the Chinese government which resulted in forced IUD's and other measures to prevent parents from having more than one child.

One of the primary problems identified with the policy is that it varies from province to province. There are many 'exceptions' to the rule that exist depending on where a couple lives. In some areas it is acceptable to try for a second child if the firstborn is a girl. In other areas it is only acceptable to try for a second child if the firstborn is disabled. Rural dwellers seem to have more exceptions to the rule than people living in urban areas, and it is more common to see families with two or three children in rural and agricultural areas than in cities.

Attempts by the government to provide financial incentives to couples adhering to the policy have also failed by and large. Though some couples have taken advantage of them, a larger majority have paid fines for not adhering to the policy and having more than one child despite legislation encouraging one child.

Part of the problem is the net population growth rate in China is on the rise. This is due largely to the increased life expectancy in China due to better quality of living standards and health care available for citizens. Despite China's best efforts, it statistics show that though fertility rates on decreasing, the net population is still increasing, and has been estimated at 1.2+ billion per year (Li, 2002).

In addition the Han Chinese are unfairly impacted by one child policies, with the population of Han decreasing and the gender ratio of male to female citizens becoming more unbalanced with every year the one child policy is in effect. The cultural implications to this particular group of Chinese have not been examined in the long-term, but it is likely that the consequences will be severe.

Based on the information gathered from studies of the one child policy over the last two decades, there is adequate information to conclude that a one child policy can result in cultural and social changes that may impact the Han Chinese negatively over time. In addition there is evidence to suggest that the population in China is still growing rather than decreasing. What exactly is the solution? In recent years a voluntary one child policy has been instituted in six provinces which is showing some promise for success. A more flexible system that allows couples to have the option of one child, or a system that allows uniform exceptions to the rule (including the allowance of a second child in the case where the firstborn is disabled or female) might be considered more acceptable alternatives.

Another problematic area is the lack of uniformity of the policy. For a policy to be effective it has to be uniform in nature. At this time the policy and its effects are unbalanced in part because the policy is so varied from province to province.

Conclusions/Recommendations

At this time it is hard to predict what will happen in the near future with regard to the population in China. Given current trends, it seems likely that despite the best intentions of the government the population in China will continue to grow. Over a period of many years however, if a successful policy is implemented the population rate might subside significantly, but it will likely take years and years for this to happen. Still, something needs to be done in the short-term to ensure that the Han Chinese have a viable future and a reasonable expectation for living a decent life.

Certainly the most important aspect of a policy as determined by the results of this study would be uniformity. For a policy to be effective it must be uniformly enforced and uniformly applied across all populations. The Han Chinese at this time are unfairly discriminated against in regards to Chinese culture. In addition people living in rural areas are allowed a great deal more liberties than those living in urban areas. The long-term consequences of such inequality will also affect the social composition and culture of China in the long-term in a negative manner.

The policy as it stands now has resulted in a gender imbalance and cultural shift in idealisms and beliefs among the Han Chinese, and it may take many years before the full impact of this shift is recognized and acknowledged. There is some evidence to suggest that a more uniform and voluntary policy might be the most effective at mitigating the population boom. It will be important in the future that the people living in China work in tandem with officials if any feasible solution is to be realized.

Further studies will need to be conducted to determine the exact impact and long-term effects of a voluntary policy. A voluntary policy may if nothing else help resolve some of the social and cultural problems that result from a policy that is coercive in nature. In addition studies should be geared toward understanding the impact of a one child policy on gender roles and population composition.