Inca expansion and unification in fifteenth-century Peru

Inca

Throughout the history of mankind, there have been several notable civilizations that started in the Before Common Era (BCE) age. These were the Indian, Chinese, Roman, Greek civilizations. But relatively recently, specifically during the Middle Ages rose civilizations that might probably have been considered relatively primitive and also relatively unknown. This is because they arose in relatively remote and relatively smaller communities. But they nonetheless left their mark on civilization, despite the fact that they were discovered only relatively recently. These are the civilizations of North America and South and Central America -- the Aztecs (in what is now Mexico), the Mayas and the Inkas (also spelled Incas -- the spelling used throughout this essay). Most people who travel for pleasure will list the ruins of Machu Pichu and Cuzco (both in Peru) as a "must visit" place. The uniqueness of the place, the architecture, the material used to build the building, the technology used to ensure that agriculture could be carried out on the hilly terrain of the Andean mountains and the exclusivity of the place (it was discovered only in 1911) such that it could not be viewed from the valleys are what makes this a must see. But it is also testament to a place and a civilization that is now, sadly, lost, incorporated into a vast Spanish speaking homogeneous South American (this does not include Brazil, which has Portuguese origins) culture.

Origins and a Historical Perspective

There is no historiological perspective on the true origins of the Incas, as to how the people came to inhabit that region or from where they were traveled. There is however, enough evidence to suggest that the area in Cuzco (the capital of the Inca civilization) was home to a set of tribes -- much like a minute version of the Balkan territories. These tribes were at constant war with each other, but there was no unification under a bigger fold. In 1438, the sons of the leaders of one of the tribe, made the first foray towards unification. (McEwan, 2006) He attacked and overthrew the leader of a neighboring tribe (the Chancas), bringing the land, the inhabitants and the culture of that tribe within the fold of his own tribe. This marked the catalyst for expansion, which essentially brought several tribes in the area under this fold. The ruler besot with power now referred to himself as the Pachacuti or Transformer of the Earth. (Kleiner and Mamiya, 2006) The rapidity of expansion and its scope could only be compared to that of the expansion started by a Macdeonian, Philip and continued by his erstwhile son, Alexander the Great. Genghis Khan also had and accomplished similar goals in a different part of the world. The Incan expansion was coordinated by the son of the ruler, who called himself, Topa Inca (or Tupa Inca). This is perhaps, where the name Inca came into being.

Eventually, the reigns of the ruler and his son lasted more than fifty years. During this time the Incan Empire spread over 2,500 miles stretching from what is now Ecuador to Chile. Some of the tribes did fear repercussions from an increasingly powerful ruler and sought to assimilate in the Incan culture. Other tribesmen had to be brought into the fold through force, punishment and recrimination.

Movement and transportation

The Incan Empire once established engendered a vast set of challenges. The establishment of an empire often necessitates the movement and travel across the empire. The terrain was very difficult and varied. This is because the empire was established in the Andean mountains, far from the valleys. Eventually 14,000 miles of roads were created; but because of the varying terrain, these roads were not paved. The hallmark of other civilizations was the ease of transport due to the paving of roads. For the Incase, this infrastructure was lacking. Because of the altitude there were no horses and wheeled vehicles were also not present. Humans and llamas served as pack animals. When the roads were too rocky or over rivers suspension bridges were built.

Religion

The high priestess and priests among the Incas were the once that became the beacons of religious life. There were however, no deities. The Incas worshipped the sun in all its aspects. They worshipped the symbol of the sun, represented by a large golden disk -- Punchao. (Julien, 2000)They were also convinced that they had descended from the Heavens. Indeed, may of the religious festivals were based on cycles of the sun -- dawn and dusk, and day and night. The festival of the harvest was celebrated by paying abeyance to the Sun Gods. (Bauer, 1998) These sun rituals were supposed to be spectacular events, where everybody was well dressed and it was not uncommon for the powerful to be seen in robes encrusted with gold and silver.

Riches

The extension of the Incan Empire forced them to be able to travel through sea and rivers. They did this by means of rafts, which were also built to be sea or river-worthy. The rafts were made of balsa wood, which is water repelling as well as light. The Incas also developed a system of mining: they were able to mine silver and gold and jewels. From these they were able to make creative jewelry. Equally worthy were their textiles, the likes of which had never been seen in the world before.

Architecture

Naturally, the ruins of Cuzco and Machu Pichu of which some monuments and constructions are intact tells us that the Ican were master masons and builders. Large slabs of stone were put together to design these complex and beautiful structures. (Kleiner and Mamiya, 2006) What is also interesting is that there was no cement or mortar put between the stones to hold them in place. The massive stones fit together so well, that they could not be dislodged. It has also stood the test of time. There has been a significant scientific effort to find out (using computers and simulations) how the Incas built these monuments without the benefit of advances of science. Various theories have been advanced, but modern science cannot explain Incan architecture. (Hemmings and Ranney, 1982)

The End of the Incan Civilization

It is said that the end of the civilization happens from within. The weight of advances cannot be borne by a civilization cannot be borne and it crumbles. This weakens the civilization and makes it vulnerable to outside influence. The weakening of this once mighty civilization coincided with Spanish expansionist attitudes. A Spanish expedition led by Francsico Pizzaro was enamored of the Incan riches and the vast wealth of natural resources, which could serve the Spanish courts. (Morris, 2008) The civilization fell within a ten months, mostly because the Spanish massacred hordes of Incas wiping out the civilization. The territory finally fell into Spanish hands when the last king of the Incas, Atahualp was murdered.