LTC Mustafa Kemal's Mission Command at Gallipoli

Introduction

LTC Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is regarded as one of the most prominent figures linking the final days of the Ottoman Empire to the beginning of today's Turkish republic.¹ He is renowned as a leader, statesman, strategist, and soldier who displayed great moral and physical courage. LTC Kemal played an important role in the Gallipoli Campaign, which is largely viewed as one of the greatest disasters for the Allies during the First World War. He effectively utilized mission command principles in the crucible of the Battle of Gallipoli. As a result, LTC Kemal's actions during the Gallipoli Campaign provide enduring leadership lessons that changed the course of history. This paper analyzes LTC Mustafa Kemal's performance in the Battle of Gallipoli during World War I, including how he executed mission command and the warfighting functions during the battle, and how his use of mission command principles and decisions affected the outcome.

The Battle of Gallipoli — also known as the Gallipoli Campaign, the Dardanelles Campaign, or the Battle of Çanakkale — was a campaign of World War I that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula (Gelibolu in modern-day Turkey).² Prior to this campaign, the Ottoman Empire had entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914. The first attack on the Dardanelles came shortly afterward, when an Anglo-French task force launched a long-range assault on Ottoman coastal artillery batteries. This task force included the British battleship HMS Queen Elizabeth. The attack took place between February 19, 1915, and January 9, 1916, on the Gallipoli peninsula in the Ottoman Empire.

Summary of Events

The Allied attack on the Gallipoli peninsula was aimed at achieving a strategic breakthrough that had proven impossible on the Western Front.³ By early 1915, the Western Front had settled into static trench warfare along a continuous line stretching from the Belgian coast on the North Sea to the Swiss border. During this period, the Ottomans had effectively closed the Dardanelles for more than five months, blocking Russia's ability to export agricultural products such as wheat and preventing the delivery of arms and other essential war materials.

The initial British plan envisioned a navy-only operation in which a combined British-French squadron would force passage through the Dardanelles and seize the Ottoman capital at Constantinople. British warships bombarded Ottoman fortresses in February 1915 as the first attempted naval assault. These warships successfully destroyed key fortifications but were unable to neutralize the Ottomans' mobile artillery batteries or clear the naval mines that continued to obstruct safe passage through the strait. On March 18, 1915, following weeks of joint counter-mine efforts, a combined British-French fleet attempted a bold but ill-conceived daylight passage of the strait. The attempt ended in disaster: three capital ships were sunk and three others were severely damaged by mines.

Despite this setback, the Allies again tried to secure control of the Dardanelles by attacking Gallipoli overland. To defend against the anticipated assault, Ottoman Fifth Army Commander General Otto Liman von Sanders organized his forces into six infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade. One of these reserve formations, the 19th Infantry Division, was placed under the command of LTC Mustafa Kemal. Drawing on his intimate knowledge of the terrain, Kemal correctly anticipated that the Allies were most likely to land at Cape Helles and at Kabatepe.⁴

After the Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) came ashore following a landing at Kabatepe, LTC Kemal took decisive action and led the 57th Infantry Regiment into the battle zone without orders from his superiors. Upon arriving at Chunuk Bair, he successfully regrouped fleeing soldiers of the 9th Division's 27th Regiment, whose ammunition had run out. The ensuing battle between ANZAC and Kemal's forces was chaotic, but the Ottoman defenders successfully pushed the Allied forces back to their fragile beachhead. LTC Kemal maintained a constant presence along the high ground, continuously directing his forces. Under his leadership, the Ottoman defenders successfully thwarted the Allied attack and prevented the Allies from achieving their objectives.

Command and control is an essential component of the art and science of warfare, involving the exercise of authority and direction by a designated commander.⁵ Commanders use command and control to provide the purpose and direction through which military activities are integrated toward a common goal. However, mission command can be a complex process with potentially devastating consequences. Effective mission command therefore requires competent forces and an environment of shared understanding and mutual trust among commanders, subordinates, and staffs — an environment in which subordinates seize opportunities and counter threats based on the commander's intent.

Several principles facilitate successful mission command, including competence, mission orders, shared understanding, mutual trust, commander's intent, disciplined initiative, and risk acceptance. In the Battle of Gallipoli, LTC Kemal applied a number of these principles to achieve successful mission command. The Allied invasion failed to accomplish any of its desired goals partly because of his able leadership and his application of four key principles: commander's intent, shared understanding, mutual trust, and disciplined initiative.

Mission Command Analysis

According to Army Doctrine Publication 6.0, a clear commander's intent is defined as "a clear and concise expression of the purpose of the operation and the desired military end state that supports mission command."⁶ This expression provides focus to the staff and assists supporting commanders and subordinates in accomplishing the commander's desired results without further orders, regardless of how the operation unfolds. The commander's intent acts as the foundation for unity of effort across the force and shapes the course of action development. It enables subordinates and supporting commanders to understand what is expected of them, probable limitations, and the purpose of the mission. While a clear commander's intent is essential for successful mission command, it is a difficult skill to master, as it is an art developed through experience and reflection.⁷ Commanders also face the challenge of delivering their intent to all levels and ensuring it is understood throughout the force.

LTC Kemal utilized this principle to mobilize his troops in defense of the Ottoman position. Although he took initiative without receiving orders, he provided a clear commander's intent to his subordinates that spurred them into action. As part of communicating his intent, Kemal used memorable words and phrases, including: "I do not order you to fight. I order you to die."⁸ He reasoned that new units would arrive to support their counter-attack while they were engaged in fighting, and that soldiers who committed to dying rather than merely fighting would hold the line long enough for reinforcements. This order clearly expressed LTC Kemal's intent — the mission was a matter of life and death — and he approached it without fear, motivating his troops to fight with equal resolve.

Commander's Intent

Army Doctrine Publication 6.0 recognizes the creation of a shared understanding as one of the major challenges faced by commanders, staffs, and unified action partners.⁹ Shared understanding is the foundation upon which unity of effort and subordinates' initiative are achieved. It entails a common understanding of the operational environment, the purpose of the operation, the problems at hand, and the approaches for solving them. Commanders and staffs create shared understanding through collaborative definition of the operational environment and its challenges. Without such collaboration, these stakeholders face tremendous difficulty navigating the operational environment effectively.

The creation of shared understanding is clearly evident in Kemal's leadership during the Battle of Gallipoli. While he conducted several combined operations, the key decisions were made in collaboration with Halil Sami, the 9th Division Commander. This shared understanding is further demonstrated by the fact that two Ottoman regiments from different divisions moved simultaneously to attack ANZAC forces. Following orders from Sami, Kemal collaborated with Lieutenant Colonel Şefik, the 27th Regiment commander, to launch coordinated counter-attacks supported by artillery. This collaboration prevented the regiments from wasting time and effort on redundant actions. The two commanders combined their troops quickly and seamlessly despite the cross-regiment nature of the attack.

Another principle of mission command evident in LTC Kemal's leadership is the development of cohesive teams through mutual trust. Mutual trust is defined primarily as the shared confidence among partners, commanders, and their subordinates.¹⁰ This confidence makes all parties reliable and competent in carrying out assigned tasks. Mutual trust is not simply granted by leaders or subordinates but is developed over time through shared experiences. Contributing factors include a commitment to professional values, adherence to leadership principles, and a leader's personal example.