Adolescent Reading Motivation: Strategies for the Classroom

Introduction

This paper focuses on assessing the motivations of adolescent individuals to read. Adolescence is an age characterized by various peer pressures and the adolescent's need to "fit in." It is likely the stage of growth in which admitting to finding enjoyment in reading is least likely to be viewed as the "cool" or "in" thing to do. Failure to excel in reading during this phase of education, however, creates a future educational barrier for the individual and affects learning and occupational progression in an ongoing manner. Therefore, understanding precisely what motivates the adolescent to read is critically important, and educators should carefully consider this fact when planning classroom instruction in this area of learning.

The work of Heidi Davey entitled "Motivation and Adolescent and Adult Readers" quotes Guthrie and Wigfield (2000), who state: "Everything from finding and choosing a text, to choosing to sit down with the text, to enacting strategic reading processes, to incorporating new information into prior knowledge requires active will and therefore motivation." There is no denying the truth of this statement. According to Davey (2006), the following key facts are known about adolescent reading motivation:

1) Motivation is known to decline throughout adolescence; 2) Relative motivation among adolescent peers remains consistent; 3) Many adolescents and adults can read but choose not to; and 4) Motivation is multifaceted (Davey, 2006).

Background and Key Definitions

The work of Michael L. Kamil (2003), entitled "Adolescents and Literacy: Reading for the 21st Century," states: "The most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) exams showed that 25% of eighth graders and 26% of twelfth graders were reading at 'below basic' levels in 2002; international comparisons of reading performance placed American eleventh graders very close to the bottom, behind students from the Philippines, Indonesia, Brazil, and other developing nations" (Kamil, 2003).

Kamil points out that each teacher in each classroom "has the direct responsibility for the development of reading skills and abilities essential for adequate comprehension" (2003). He distinguishes between teaching strategies, which are "content focused and teacher initiated," and learning strategies, which "are student directed and intended to build independence in reading" (2003). Learning strategies include: (1) summarizing; (2) note taking; (3) imagery; (4) outlining; and (5) metacognitive training (Kamil, 2003). Kamil defines motivation in reading as "the cluster of personal goals, values, and beliefs with regard to the topics, processes, and outcomes of reading that an individual possesses" (2003).

Two foundational terms are relevant throughout this discussion:

Intrinsic motivation refers to that which one does by individual choice and for the sake of personal satisfaction — doing, learning, or knowing something for its own reward.

Extrinsic motivation refers to that which one engages in for the purpose of external rewards or evaluation.

In a revised version of a position paper commissioned by the Board of Directors of the National Reading Conference (NRC) — undertaken to underscore the need to continue literacy instruction beyond elementary grades — it is stated that in order for adolescent literacy instruction to be effective, it "must address issues of self-efficacy and student engagement with a variety of texts (e.g., textbooks, hypermedia texts, digital texts) in diverse settings. It must also attend to the literacy demands of subject area classes, to struggling readers, to issues of critical literacy, and to participatory instructional approaches that actively engage adolescents in their own learning" (Alvermann, 2001).

Alvermann notes that in the United States, media headlines typically focus on early literacy instruction and the so-called "reading wars" between advocates of direct skills instruction and those who favor more holistic approaches to teaching young children to read print text (2001). The result is that the overlooked literacy needs of adolescents in middle and high schools go unaddressed. As Alvermann states: "Young people's literacy skills are not keeping pace with societal demands of living in an information age that changes rapidly and shows no sign of slowing" (2001).

Added to this challenge are higher standards for reading achievement established by decades of school reform. According to Alvermann, "The percentages of students in grades 8 and 12 who are performing at or above the basic level (e.g., comprehending primarily factual information) are 74 and 77%, respectively" (2001). The necessary tasks in reading and writing are "continuing to increase in complexity and difficulty," yet the "basic literacy level is insufficient" (Alvermann, 2001).

Present Issues in Adolescent Literacy

Alvermann also raises an important point: "literacy" defines more than simply the ability to read text. In today's world, literacy encompasses computer, visual, graphic, and scientific literacies, and it takes place within different social contexts (Alvermann, 2001). An adolescent's self-view of competence "will affect how motivated they are to learn in their subject area classes (e.g., the sciences, social studies, mathematics, and literature)," requiring that "issues of self-efficacy and engagement" be addressed (Alvermann, 2001). What one believes about oneself, Alvermann notes, is "phenomenal" (2001).

Central to motivation theories is the perception of self-efficacy. The provision of clear goals and feedback for adolescents who struggle with reading "can lead to increased self-efficacy and greater use of comprehension strategies" (Schunk & Rice, 1993; as cited in Alvermann, 2001). Additionally, the creation of technological environments "that heighten students' motivation to become independent readers and writers can increase their sense of competency" (Kamil, Intrator, & Kim, 2000; as cited in Alvermann, 2001). Intrinsic motivation has been noted to decrease as students move to middle school, with varying explanations including differences in instructional practice (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; as cited in Alvermann, 2001). Studies have shown that varying instructional practices do not have a noticeable impact on student reading on their own; rather, "the level of student engagement is the mediating factor, or avenue, through which classroom instruction influences student outcome" (Alvermann, 2001).

The work of Alan Wigfield, entitled "Motivation for Literacy During Adolescence," presents the Engagement Model of Reading Development. According to the RAND panel on reading comprehension, cited in Wigfield (n.d.), reading comprehension is "the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language" (p. 11). Wigfield also notes that "strategy instruction increased strategy competence and text comprehension in controlled experiments" (NRP, 2000; Trabasso & Bouchard, 2002; as cited in Wigfield, n.d.).

Strategy instruction includes: (1) question asking; (2) summarizing; (3) organizing graphically; (4) structuring stories; (5) activating background knowledge; and (6) searching for information (Wigfield, n.d.).

Wigfield identifies the following motivators for adolescent reading:

Student beliefs about their own competence as well as their values for English decline continuously throughout the adolescent years. Motivation for reading "non-traditional" materials and reading outside of school is higher than motivation for in-school reading. Resistance to — and disaffection with — reading causes avoidance of reading-related activities. Overcoming this resistance may be achieved through meaningful reading experiences and connections to subject areas, as well as collaboration with others (Wigfield, n.d.).

A meta-analysis of practices for increasing reading motivation and text comprehension identifies the following as supporting motivation for reading: (1) content goals in reading instruction; (2) support of autonomy during reading instruction; (3) the use of interesting texts; and (4) instruction inclusive of social collaboration (Wigfield, n.d.).

The work of Guthrie and Wigfield presents a conceptual engagement model for reading that calls for instruction enabling student motivation, inclusive of self-efficacy and goal setting, strategy use and conceptual knowledge growth, and social interaction (Alvermann, 2001). Literacy strategies identified as effective with adolescent students include:

Motivation and engagement; application of age-appropriate material; material that is appropriate to the student's reading ability; activation of prior knowledge; and modeling of self-monitoring techniques during reading (Alvermann, 2001).

The publication "Reading for the 21st Century: Adolescent Literacy Teaching and Learning Strategies" reports that the U.S. Department of Education commissioned the RAND Reading Study Group to develop a research agenda identifying the most pressing issues in adolescent literacy. The research was motivated by several key factors: