Agricultural Technologies and Innovation in the Middle Ages

Introduction

The Middle Ages is a period characterized by the diffusion of many new agricultural technologies which, in turn, increased agricultural productivity, protected rich croplands from inclement weather, established a uniformity in farming throughout various regions, and improved nutrition overall.

Agricultural Tools and Crop Rotation

The plow is considered to be one of the most important — and oldest — technologies ever developed. The history of the plow stretches back to the Neolithic (New Stone) Age, which began around 8000 BC in Mesopotamia. In the Middle Ages, however, the plow was radically improved and was used with multiple-oxen teams. This innovation facilitated the clearing of the forests of fertile northwest Europe (Gies & Gies 1995). Before this improvement, the nature of the soil made it very difficult to plow these fields, and this inability to cultivate the land reduced the population of northwest Europe. After the plow was redesigned to handle the heavier and wetter soil of the region, there was a dramatic increase in agricultural productivity and, subsequently, in the population of these areas. Even with the technological improvements of the Medieval Age, a farmer's working day remained extremely demanding.

In addition to the redesign of the plow, the way crops were grown changed significantly in Medieval Europe when farmers shifted from a two-field crop rotation to a three-field crop rotation beginning in the 8th century. According to White (1962), Charlemagne himself conceived of this agricultural innovation. Under the two-field system, half the land was planted in a given year while the other half lay fallow; in the following year, the two fields were reversed. Under the three-field system, the land was divided into three sections. One section was planted in the fall with winter wheat or rye. The following spring, the second section was planted with other crops such as peas, lentils, or beans, and the third section was left fallow. The three fields were rotated so that every third year a field would rest unplanted.

The productivity gain was tangible. Under the two-field system, a farmer with 600 fertile acres would plant only 300. Under the three-field system, that same farmer would plant — and harvest — 400 acres. Beyond the gain in raw output, the additional spring crops had a more significant effect: since those crops were mostly legumes, they increased the overall nutritional quality of the diet of people in Northern Europe.

The use of the horse collar appears to have spread rapidly, though not uniformly, through European agriculture and heavy freight hauling — though in neither case did the use of oxen ever completely vanish (Langdon 1986). Oxen were cheaper than horses, but horses are approximately 50% faster than oxen and can work more hours during the day. Horses were no stronger than oxen in total pulling force, were more difficult to care for, and required specialized and more expensive feed. Nevertheless, by the late Middle Ages, the use of the horse in agriculture had become very common (Gimpel 1976).

The Harness and the Heavy Plow

The heavy plow was often mounted on wheels, which allowed the plowshare to be matched precisely to the furrow being cut. Several oxen harnessed in tandem — another innovation of this period — pulled the plow. In later practice, horses in tandem frequently replaced oxen.

The heavy plow was essential for the efficient use of the rich, heavy, and often wet soils of Northern Europe. Its use allowed the region's forests and swamps to be brought under cultivation (Gies & Gies 1995). Although even the heavy plow could not completely destroy the root systems of weeds in long-worked arable land, it did expose much of those root systems to open air, which inhibited weed growth (Jordan 1996). Furthermore, open fields plowed in long furrows were able to absorb large amounts of water, and the shape of the furrow ensured that drainage caused little erosion — a feature that helped protect the rich croplands of northern Europe from heavy rains (Jordan 1996).

The whippletree — also known by the names whiffletree, swingletree, splinter bar, or swing bar — is a simple piece of wood attached at its center to the drawpole of a plow or cart. The horses' harness then attaches to the whippletree at convenient points (Langdon 1986). The whippletree allows for flexibility in harnessing arrangements, makes harnessing in file much easier, and increases maneuverability (Langdon 1986; Mokyr 1990).

Conclusion

The technologies examined throughout this paper played an important role in the development of medieval agriculture. The consequence of these improvements was a major increase in agricultural productivity, among other advancements. Together, the heavy plow, three-field crop rotation, horse collar, whippletree, and advances in iron production transformed not only how Europeans farmed but also how their society was organized, laying a foundation for the economic and demographic growth of the later medieval period.