Becoming Black: Pan-African Identity and the African Diaspora

Introduction

The concept of "Becoming Black" is rooted in experiences of racial identity, cultural consciousness, and the broader notion of Pan-African unity. It is simultaneously a process of racialization imposed by external forces and a deliberate effort by Black intellectuals and the wider African diaspora to redefine their narratives and assert their historical and contemporary significance. As a result, many people and their communities have contested racialized theories and have participated in the creation of a global Pan-African identity politics. This paper examines the meaning of "Becoming Black" to show how these narratives are constructed and what role African identity plays in creating a sense of unity and connection among people of African descent.

The Meaning of Being Black

Howard Winant and W.E.B. Du Bois shed light on how the construction of racial identity was used in society to limit and restrict the movements of Black people. Winant examined race as a central tenet of social relations, while Du Bois explored the idea of double consciousness and what it meant for Black people. Their works take different routes to the idea of Blackness, but both reflect an awareness of what Africa means for Black Americans and both underscore the importance of historical awareness. It is this awareness that also plays a part in active resistance in the face of racialized oppression. For both Winant and Du Bois, Africa was a place of real historical significance that cast a long shadow and affected the lives of Black Americans in the present.

Winant argued that race was not a marginal aspect of society but rather a fundamental organizing principle. In America, people were grouped according to racial identity. In making this argument, Winant looked beyond individual experience to the structural and institutional dimensions of racism. He saw a society set up to exclude people of African descent from positions of power. By examining race as a central axis of social relations, Winant showed how racial categories are constructed and maintained through social, economic, and political processes. For him, the idea of Africa functioned as a label that European Americans used to exclude Black people.

Du Bois's concept of "double consciousness" also helps illuminate the African American experience of racial identity. This concept describes the internal conflict experienced by Black individuals who must hold the dual identities of being African and American in a society that devalues their Africanness. Du Bois posited that this "twoness" — an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings — forces Black individuals to see themselves through the eyes of a society that denies their full humanity.

Both Winant and Du Bois emphasize the importance of historical awareness and active resistance in the face of racialized oppression. Understanding the historical roots and contemporary manifestations of racism is essential for challenging its structures and narratives. Winant's focus on race as a central social axis and Du Bois's concept of double consciousness together provide tools for deconstructing racial ideologies and practices.

Paul Gilroy, by contrast, challenged traditional notions of cultural identity that rely on purity and authenticity, arguing that such views fail to capture the reality of diasporic life. Instead, he posited that the identities of those within the Black Atlantic are characterized by hybridity and fluidity, shaped by the interplay of different cultural influences and histories. This hybridity is not a dilution of authenticity but a testament to the creative survival and resistance of Black cultures in the face of oppression and displacement. Gilroy's emphasis on hybridity and fluidity as central features of Black diasporic identity offers a powerful counter-narrative to racial essentialism and ethnonationalism.

Conclusion

Phillis Wheatley's poem "On Being Brought from Africa to America" (1773) is altogether distinctive because it frames the experience of slavery and movement from Africa to America not primarily in racial terms but in terms of salvation. For Wheatley, being Black and from Africa was a curse descended from Cain. But as a Christian — a religion she adopted upon being brought to America — she expresses a sense of gratitude. This perspective differs markedly from the angry or bitter voices found in other authors. She is not bitter about being sold into slavery in this poem; quite the contrary, she is full of appreciation and sees the experience as an act of mercy, as stated in the poem's first line: "'Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land…" She is glad because she has been taught that Christ saved her, and that makes it all worthwhile — in Africa, she had received no such teaching.

Yet her poem also serves as a reminder to other Christians: they should not look down on Black people simply because their skin marks them as descendants of Cain. Her point is that all Christians are redeemed and made clean by the blood of Christ, and therefore all are part of the same "angelic train" (Wheatley). Her deeper argument is that Christianity makes all people equal, whereas race was used to set them apart. For Wheatley, Africa represents a pagan land — a land of false views about God. Her concern is not with becoming Black; it is with becoming a Christian, which she considers the more significant transformation. In doing so, she no longer defines herself primarily by Blackness.

Olaudah Equiano's narrative Going Back to Africa as a Missionary or Settler (1779) takes a different approach, offering a firsthand account of the transatlantic slave trade and the profound disconnection from one's homeland. His desire to return to Africa as a missionary or settler speaks to a deep longing to reconnect with his roots and the land of his ancestors. Equiano's journey from enslavement to freedom, and his contemplation of returning to Africa, highlights the complexity of identity for those in the diaspora. His writings contrast with Wheatley's in that he is more directly concerned with what it means to be Black. His desire to return to Africa ultimately represents a desire to reclaim an identity that has been lost through displacement in America. He feels a strong and lasting connection to Africa, regardless of the physical distance or the time spent away. Equiano's story is a compelling narrative of survival, resistance, and the quest for identity in a world that seeks to strip individuals of their heritage.

Marcus Garvey's Speech in Philadelphia (1919) and the principles of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) represent a pivotal moment in the history of Pan-Africanism and the global Black solidarity movement. Garvey's speech, coupled with the UNIA bylaws, articulates a vision of empowerment, self-reliance, and the unification of African people worldwide. His call for returning to Africa resonates as a call to reclaim dignity, heritage, and autonomy. His emphasis on economic independence, cultural pride, and political sovereignty for people of African descent was revolutionary, offering a sense of collective identity and purpose that transcended national boundaries. Garvey's work promotes Africa as a homeland and as a symbol of unity and hope for the future.

Together, these narratives from Wheatley, Equiano, and Garvey illuminate the diverse experiences of the African diaspora. They underscore the significance of Africa as a homeland, a source of cultural pride, and a foundation for global Black solidarity. Through their stories, we see the enduring impact of displacement and the quest for identity, as well as the resilience and creativity with which individuals and communities navigate their connections to Africa. These perspectives contribute to a richer understanding of the African diaspora's complex history and its ongoing dialogue with the continent of its origins.

Africa emerges in these narratives as both a literal and symbolic homeland, serving as a focal point for discussions of identity, heritage, and belonging. For writers like Du Bois, Africa represents the roots of civilization and a wellspring of cultural and intellectual richness. The call for unity among people of African descent is rooted in a shared history of exploitation and resistance, as well as a collective aspiration for liberation and self-determination. For Wheatley, however, Christianity was the more important concept and the true equalizer.

The process of "Becoming Black" is thus something different for everyone. It tells a story of a curse, of resistance, self-definition, and community building. Through their writings and activism, Black intellectuals and members of the African diaspora have challenged racialized theories and narratives to create a Pan-African identity that transcends national boundaries. For some it meant returning to Africa. For others it meant a struggle for conformity. For still others it meant looking past race to identify the spiritual truth that unites and frees all people.