Causes and Outcomes of the War of 1812 Explained

Introduction: Peace That Left Tensions Unresolved

Peace after the Revolutionary War of Independence did not resolve all tension between the United States and Great Britain. This became evident on June 18, 1812, when the United States declared war on Great Britain. There are numerous reasons that led to the war, which primarily involve, in some form, Great Britain's engagement in war with Napoleon in Europe and the young United States' expansionist ambitions. This war, which would become known as the War of 1812, was fought in North America from 1812 to 1815. Neither Great Britain nor the United States achieved their immediate objectives. However, the United States did — especially after the Battle of New Orleans — succeed in its pre-war aim of maintaining independence. Although the war did not change any borders on the map, it reinforced U.S. independence and permanently ended British influence over its former colonies.

The War of 1812 was largely caused by British encroachment on the rights of American neutral merchants, and thus reflected British attitudes toward America's sovereignty. The outcome of the war responded to these attitudes, as American sovereignty was ultimately established.

British Commercial Restrictions and American Trade

The roots of the War of 1812 lie in European intercontinental politics in the early nineteenth century. Britain and France went to war in 1803, yet Britain was incapable of fighting effectively on land and Napoleon on the sea (Harney, 1989). By 1806, Napoleon had excluded British goods from Europe, creating a difficult situation for American ships seeking to remain neutral in this continental conflict (Feldmeth, 1988). The British goal was to defeat France through commercial restriction, and this meant American merchant ships would be caught in the crossfire of the European war. Britain instituted a policy through the Orders in Council, which stated that neutral ships would have to obtain a license at a British port before sailing to Europe — effectively forcing neutral ships, including American ones, to choose one side or the other (Thinkquest, 1998).

America relied on European trade and continued to engage in commerce across the seas. Yet America's commercial interests would become a central factor leading to the War of 1812, as the young nation found itself entangled in the bitter struggle between Great Britain and France.

Impressment, the Embargo Act, and the Road to War

To counter American merchants and hinder their profitable trade with France, Britain began to assert command of the seas. As a result, between 1803 and 1812, the British seized approximately 10,000 American citizens as prisoners, dramatically increasing tension between the two nations (Feldmeth, 1988). According to Horsman (1962), "The period 1804 to 1807 had produced a British policy of increasing strictness and a steadily growing American irritation, particularly in regard to impressment" (p. 123). This policy of impressment — which allowed the British to board American vessels and search for deserters — constituted a clear infringement on American rights.

President Madison addressed this directly in his 1812 message to Congress, stating that "British cruisers have been in the continued practice of violating the American flag on the great high-way of nations, and of seizing and carrying off persons sailing under it" (Madison, 1812). This demonstrates that the British policies violating the rights of American sailors were central to the American decision to go to war. Britain not only sought to defeat France but also aimed to retain naval and commercial supremacy, and therefore could not tolerate any challenger. American commercial interests were strong and depended on trade with France, which directly interfered with British wartime strategy. Tensions mounted further as British forces captured American vessels "within sight of the U.S. coast," deepening animosity toward their former colonizer.

In response to these overseas difficulties, the Jefferson administration created an embargo in hopes of a peaceful resolution. However, the Embargo Act of December 1807 only accelerated the path to war by exhausting peaceful alternatives. It was, as Feldmeth (1988) describes, "Jefferson's attempt at 'peaceful coercion' [that] resulted in economic disaster for merchants." The embargo severely crippled American trade, particularly in the Northeast, while doing little to harm the British, who could still trade elsewhere in the Americas (Harney, 1989). The failure of this policy, which hurt America while benefiting Britain, meant that "war or absolute submission to England" were the only remaining alternatives (Horsman, 1962, p. 266). Economic deterioration caused by British policy and American mismanagement of the crisis thus became a significant contributing cause of the War of 1812.

Conclusion: American Independence Confirmed

The War of 1812 had numerous causes, the most important of which were economic in nature. The United States, in order to maintain its economic vitality, was forced to go to war, especially after the failed attempts to avoid conflict through the embargo. The expansionist reasons for the war were more of a secondary consequence than a primary driver. Great Britain, because of its war with Napoleon in Europe, sought to disrupt economic interaction between the United States and continental Europe. The way Great Britain pursued this policy — by capturing Americans, boarding their ships, and seizing vessels close to American shores — demonstrated a clear lack of respect for the power, standing, and sovereignty of its former colony.

Ultimately, American independence was entrenched by the War of 1812, as prior encroachments on American rights, such as impressment, came to an end. The United States was able to suppress Native American resistance that had been encouraged largely at British urging. While the war also helped establish Canada as a distinct nation, it simultaneously affirmed America's own national identity. As a conflict against its former colonizer, America can be said to have won a second war of independence. This is further reflected in Madison's war message to Congress, in which he appeals to the "honor" of his country, as though Britain had violated it and it was America's responsibility to reclaim it (Madison, 1812). Although the war was fought primarily for economic reasons, the "honor" Madison invoked was indeed restored, as Great Britain was unable to dominate the United States militarily or commercially.

The outcome of the war was a nominal stalemate, but in practice it was a success for the United States. As a new nation, the United States demonstrated its resolve and capability against a major European naval power. While northward territorial expansion did not materialize, this was of little consequence compared to the more pressing matter of America's economic interests and economic sovereignty. Ultimately, by frustrating British objectives, the United States fulfilled its own — confirming its place as a sovereign and independent nation.

References

Feldmeth, Greg D. (31 March 1998). U.S. History Resources. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/USHistory.html.

Harney, Major W. (1989). The Causes of the War of 1812. Retrieved 4 March 2007 from

Hickey, Donald. (1989). The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.

Horsman, Reginald. (1962). The Causes of the War of 1812. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Madison, James. (1 June 1812). President Madison's War Message. Retrieved 4 March 2007 from http://edsitement.neh.gov/lessonimages/lesson571/WarMsgFull.pdf.

Thinkquest. (1998). Re-living History: The War of 1812. Retrieved 4 March 2007 from http://library.thinkquest.org/22916/excauses.html.