This paper provides a comparative analysis of the conditions facing children in Liberia and Sierra Leone — two of West Africa's poorest nations — in the aftermath of prolonged civil conflicts. Drawing on government data, academic scholarship, and UN reports, the paper surveys each country's economic and political situation, demographic profile, poverty indicators, and public health challenges. It then examines specific issues affecting children: forced recruitment as child soldiers, female genital mutilation, access to education, child labor, and the psychological trauma of displacement and family separation. The paper also explores post-conflict reconciliation mechanisms, including Sierra Leone's Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Special Court, and closes with cross-cutting observations about the international community's responsibility toward these vulnerable populations.
Two of the world's most beautiful countries are also, unfortunately, among the poorest. The nations of Liberia and Sierra Leone face a number of severe obstacles in their quest to join the international community and diversify their stagnated, monolithic economies. While much remains to be done, some progress has been made. The following provides a brief overview of each country, followed by a discussion of challenges as they directly affect children; a summary of findings is provided in the conclusion.
A costly and bloody civil war and government malfeasance have adversely affected much of Liberia's economy, particularly the infrastructure in and around Monrovia, the capital. Continued international sanctions on diamond and timber exports further constrain the growth of these major industries in the near term. A number of businessmen emigrated, taking scarce capital and expertise with them; while some have returned, many more are not expected to do so.
Although the nation enjoys abundant supplies of water, mineral resources, forests, and a favorable climate, Liberia has been restricted to a colonial-level economy and does not have any value-added industries to speak of, basing its economic output largely on raw timber and rubber. The manufacturing sector remains small and is owned primarily by foreigners. The U.S. government reports that the departure of former president Charles Taylor to Nigeria in August 2003, the establishment of the all-inclusive Transitional Government, and the arrival of a UN mission were all considered essential for the eventual end of the political crisis; however, these events have not affected economic development in any substantive way. Ultimately, the reconstruction of infrastructure and the improvement of wages in Liberia will depend on generous financial support and technical assistance from donor countries.
Major Exports: Rubber, timber, iron, diamonds, cocoa, coffee.
Major Industries/Sectors of Employment: Rubber processing, palm oil processing, timber, diamonds.
Primary Languages: English 20% (official); some 20 ethnic group languages, of which a few can be written and are used in correspondence.
Primary Religions: Indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%.
The 1991–2002 civil war between the government and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people — about one-third of the population — many of whom became refugees in neighboring countries. With the support of UN peacekeeping forces and contributions from the World Bank and the international community, demobilization and disarmament of RUF and Civil Defense Forces (CDF) combatants was completed. National elections were held in May 2002, and the government continued to slowly reestablish its authority. However, the gradual withdrawal of most UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) peacekeepers in 2004 and early 2005, deteriorating political and economic conditions in Guinea, and the tenuous security situation in neighboring Liberia presented ongoing challenges to Sierra Leone's stability.
Major Exports: Diamonds, rutile, cocoa, coffee, fish (1999).
Major Industries/Sectors of Employment: Diamond mining; small-scale manufacturing (beverages, textiles, cigarettes, footwear); petroleum refining; small commercial ship repair.
Primary Languages: English (official, regular use limited to literate minority); Mende (principal vernacular in the south); Temne (principal vernacular in the north); Krio (an English-based Creole spoken by descendants of freed Jamaican slaves settled in the Freetown area, a lingua franca and first language for 10% of the population but understood by 95%).
Primary Religions: Muslim 60%, indigenous beliefs 30%, Christian 10%.
In August 2003, a comprehensive peace agreement ended 14 years of civil war and prompted the resignation of former president Charles Taylor, who was exiled to Nigeria. The National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL), comprised of rebel, government, and civil society groups, assumed control of the country in October 2003. Chairman Gyude Bryant was given a two-year mandate to oversee efforts to rebuild the country. The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) completed a disarmament program for former combatants in late 2004; however, the security situation remained uncertain and the process of rebuilding the country's social and economic structure continued to take longer than expected.
Population: 3,482,211 (July 2005 est.)
Age structure: 0–14 years: 43.6%; 15–64 years: 52.8%; 65 years and over: 3.7% (2005 est.)
Median age: 18.06 years total; 17.69 years male; 18.42 years female (2005 est.)
Population growth rate: 2.64% (2005 est.)
Birth rate: 44.22 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
Death rate: 17.87 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrants/1,000 population. Note: at least 200,000 Liberian refugees were in surrounding countries; the uncertain security situation hindered their ability to return (2005 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 128.87 deaths/1,000 live births total; 135.64 male; 121.9 female (2005 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: 47.69 years total; 46.75 years male; 48.65 years female (2005 est.)
HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: 5.9% (2003 est.)
People living with HIV/AIDS: 100,000 (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS deaths: 7,200 (2003 est.)
Major infectious diseases (degree of risk: very high): Food- or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever. Vector-borne diseases: malaria and yellow fever are high risks in some locations. Water contact disease: schistosomiasis. Aerosolized dust or soil contact disease: Lassa fever (2004).
Sierra Leone is an extremely poor African nation with tremendous inequality in income distribution. While it possesses substantial mineral, agricultural, and fishery resources, its economic and social infrastructure is not well developed, and serious social disorders continue to hamper economic development. Approximately two-thirds of the working-age population is employed in subsistence agriculture; the manufacturing sector is primarily comprised of processing raw materials and light manufacturing for the domestic market. Plans to reopen bauxite and rutile mines shut down during the eleven-year civil war have not been implemented due to lack of foreign investment.
Alluvial diamond mining remains the major source of hard currency earnings. The fate of the economy depends upon the maintenance of domestic peace and the continued receipt of substantial aid from abroad, which is essential to offset the severe trade imbalance and supplement government revenues. International financial institutions contributed over $600 million in development aid and budgetary support in 2003.
Population: 6,017,643 (July 2005 est.)
Age structure: 0–14 years: 44.7%; 15–64 years: 52%; 65 years and over: 3.3% (2005 est.)
Median age: 17.53 years total; 17.2 years male; 17.84 years female (2005 est.)
Population growth rate: 2.22% (2005 est.)
Birth rate: 42.84 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
Death rate: 20.61 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrants/1,000 population. Note: refugees in surrounding countries were slowly returning (2005 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 143.64 deaths/1,000 live births total; 161.06 male; 125.69 female (2005 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: 42.52 years total; 40.13 years male; 44.98 years female (2005 est.)
HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: 7% (2001 est.)
People living with HIV/AIDS: 170,000 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS deaths: 11,000 (2001 est.)
Major infectious diseases (degree of risk: very high): Food- or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever. Vector-borne diseases: malaria and yellow fever are high risks in some locations. Water contact disease: schistosomiasis. Aerosolized dust or soil contact disease: Lassa fever (2004).
In any setting, human rights are most abused during civil wars or widespread ethnic violence, and women and children are generally those who suffer most. While the cultural context of a given society determines the categorical boundaries within which adolescence is understood, every society has a transitional period between childhood and adulthood — between innocence and responsible behavior. Young children in Liberia and Sierra Leone who have been affected by war and violence represent a more vulnerable group than their counterparts elsewhere. One obvious reason is the breakdown of family and other social frameworks that, in times of normalcy, provide the institutional basis by which adolescents are socialized into the roles they are expected to assume as adults.
"In the refugee setting," Bruce notes, "adolescents are overlooked in programming. Education, where it exists, is for primary school children; vocational and skills training are often for women who have become single heads of household as a result of the war, as is reproductive health information, AIDS awareness and access to income-generating activities." For the majority of adolescents in these countries, access to education and employment opportunities is an absolute requirement for their continued status as "children." If they fail to gain this access, males are targeted for conscription into either government or rebel militias, and females become vulnerable to sexual exploitation.
Rather than continuing to ignore the special needs of this category of refugees, authorities should draw on the experiences of other country programs that involve adolescents in youth leadership groups to take up campaigns on such issues as drug use, AIDS, and early marriage.
Increasingly, there are circumstances where children — often adolescents — are required to take on domestic responsibility in households where parents are absent. Large-scale examples have occurred in Rwanda as a consequence of genocide and in countries where AIDS has orphaned large numbers of children. In households headed by children, older children of both sexes take responsibility for younger siblings, rarely with adequate resources. Boys have greater access to jobs in such circumstances, while girls are vulnerable to sexual exploitation. In all cases, adolescents who have assumed the responsibility of raising younger brothers and sisters put their own lives on hold. Providing food, shelter, clothing, and — when possible — school fees and access to healthcare with scarce resources is a formidable task. Without access to land, shelter is difficult; without agricultural skills, self-sufficiency in farming will not occur; and without access to schooling, preparation for the future is bleak.
The Office of the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Children in Armed Conflict estimates that there are 300,000 children worldwide who have been armed with light weapons to fight on behalf of the adults who have kidnapped or conscripted them. The Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone, with support from Charles Taylor — former warlord turned president of Liberia — represents one of the most infamous examples.
Despite these disadvantages and obstacles, children in Liberia appeared to be better situated than many of their counterparts in neighboring countries. Since 1939, education has been compulsory for children between the ages of six and 16, and is free at the primary and secondary levels. In 1974, Liberia became a full member of the West African Council in order to provide an international benchmark for assessing the quality of its education. The Liberian government provides for the education of teachers and sponsors the employment of foreign teachers. International aid has also allowed the government to expand the quality and availability of education.
There are a number of vocational schools, including the Booker Washington Agricultural and Industrial Institute at Kakata (a government school). Advanced training is provided at the University of Liberia (founded 1951) in Monrovia, at Cuttington University College (founded 1889) in Suakoko (Episcopalian), and at the William V.S. Tubman College of Science and Technology (founded 1978) in Harper. Several community colleges have also been established in the Monrovia area. Paramedical training is provided by the Monrovia Torrino Medical College. Liberian citizens who study abroad receive advanced training under a government foreign scholarship program and through various donor agencies.
Literacy (definition: age 15 and over can read and write): Total population: 57.5%; male: 73.3%; female: 41.6% (2003 est.)
Female genital mutilation (FGM) in Liberia has been difficult to control because of the civil unrest that has rocked the country in recent years. According to Welch, a major goal of the Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices (IAC) is the total eradication of FGM; however, this has not been achieved, although the more severe forms are being practiced less widely. "The practice is too deeply rooted to be excised quickly," Welch advises, and "a new generation of educated men and women must become influential within rural communities, where various harmful traditional practices remain widespread."
As long as appropriate behavior continues to be defined by traditional and sacred male-dominated beliefs, and as long as females are culturally barred from positions of leadership, abuses to women's health will undoubtedly continue. The World Health Organization estimates that about 40% of African women endure these kinds of operations in more than 36 nations, extending in a vast belt from Mauritania to the Horn of Africa, through parts of Senegal, Mali, and Burkina Faso, crossing from central-northern Africa via Cameroon, Chad, and the Central African Republic to Egypt, Kenya, and Tanzania. The Congo basin and the area south of the equator are largely not included, except for a few parts of Botswana, Lesotho, and Mozambique. Although the Islamic areas of Africa are particularly likely to practice these operations, they cannot be identified exclusively with the Arab world; they are unknown in North Africa, Saudi Arabia, and in almost 80% of the modern Muslim world.
"School access, literacy gaps, and gender inequality"
"Child labor in mining, militias, and domestic work"
"UN mechanisms, IRC programs, and reconciliation efforts"
Taken together, the research shows that the road ahead is a rocky one for both Sierra Leone and Liberia, but it appears the latter is slightly better situated to take advantage of the infrastructure provided by foreign investment than the former. Furthermore, while both countries continue to be characterized by corruption and violence, Sierra Leone represents an actual international "basket case" — almost on the scope of North Korea — that is going to require an enormous amount of international assistance to pull itself out of the social and political quagmire that has emerged in the 21st century. By contrast, Liberia may be able to accomplish its stated goals of improving education and healthcare for all of its citizens, notwithstanding the need to address the other glaring issues facing policymakers at all levels.
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