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China and the Mongol Conquest: Kublai Khan's Empire

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Abstract

This paper examines the Mongol Empire's expansion into China during the 13th century, focusing on Kublai Khan's consolidation of power and establishment of his capital at modern-day Beijing. It traces Marco Polo's journey to Kublai Khan's court and his years of service as emissary and political adviser. The paper also recounts the Great Battle of 1287, in which Kublai Khan's forces decisively defeated his rival Nayan. A concluding section surveys the broader rise of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan, including the campaigns against the Xixia and Jin Dynasty that brought much of northern China under Mongol control.

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What makes this paper effective

The paper blends historical narrative with specific detail — troop numbers, travel durations, and named locations — giving the account concrete texture and credibility.
It moves logically from the macro (empire formation) to the micro (Marco Polo's personal service) and back to the macro (the broader Mongol campaigns), creating a coherent arc.
The battle description draws on primary source material from Marco Polo's writings, grounding the narrative in a firsthand account.

Key academic technique demonstrated

The paper demonstrates the use of historical narrative synthesis — drawing on both secondary scholarly sources and a classic primary source (Marco Polo's travel accounts) to reconstruct events. Rather than simply listing facts, the writer weaves cause-and-effect relationships, such as how Marco Polo's linguistic abilities earned him Khan's trust, and how the Polos leveraged a diplomatic mission to secure their return home.

Structure breakdown

The paper opens with the founding and geographic scope of the Mongol Empire, then narrows to the Polo family's travels and service at Khan's court. A central section details the 1287 battle against Nayan in vivid tactical terms. A brief conclusion zooms back out to summarize Genghis Khan's early campaigns against the Xixia and Jin Dynasty. The paper closes with two references supporting its key claims.

Introduction: The Mongol Empire in the 13th Century

The 13th century saw the Mongol Empire, which Genghis Khan established, stretch from the borders of Poland in the west to the Yellow Sea in the east. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan became ruler of this empire in 1260, after which he consolidated his power by relinquishing the Mongol conquests outside China and establishing his capital at the site of modern-day Beijing.

As Venetian merchants, Nicolo Polo and his brother traveled overland in 1260 to the Mongol capital, where they remained at the court of Khan until their return to Venice in 1269. The two merchants once again made the dangerous journey to Kublai Khan's court in 1271, this time accompanied by Nicolo's seventeen-year-old son Marco Polo. The journey took three and a half years before their adventure came to an end. After staying with the Khan for seventeen years, they endured a return journey of three years and finally arrived home in 1295.

Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan

Due to Marco Polo's intelligence and command of languages, Khan was greatly impressed with him and employed him as an invaluable emissary and political adviser (Jeffrey Hays, 2008). Marco Polo's descriptions of his travels sparked considerable interest in the Orient among Medieval Europeans, and they also inspired Christopher Columbus to seek a western sea route — a quest that ultimately led to the discovery of America.

Because Marco was Kublai Khan's favorite, he was appointed governor of Yangzhou, a busy city of more than 250,000 people, for three years. Marco traveled on missions to distant lands such as Burma, Yunnan, Tibet, and Indochina, returning with stories of those lands and their peoples.

2 Locked Sections · 500 words remaining

The Polos' Journey Home · 110 words

"Polos seek and negotiate permission to return to Venice"

The Battle Against Nayan · 390 words

"Kublai Khan defeats rival Nayan in 1287 battle"

Conclusion: The Rise of the Mongol Empire

This mighty Mongolian Empire was founded by Temujin after he unified all the tribes of the Mongolian people and was given the honored title Genghis Khan, meaning "ruler of the world." From that time forward, a large-scale offensive into the outside world began, led by Genghis Khan and his army. They first targeted the Xixia, located within the middle and western areas of China, launching three massive invasions in 1205, 1207, and 1209. This military pressure forced the Xixia to pay tribute to the Mongols and sue for peace. Another attack took place in 1211 against the Jin Dynasty, after which the Mongols were able to capture Zhongdu, one of the Jin's major cities. As a result, many territories north of the Yellow River fell under Mongol control.

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Key Concepts in This Paper

Kublai Khan Marco Polo Mongol Empire Genghis Khan Nayan Rebellion Silk Road Trade Yuan Dynasty Mongol Conquest Jin Dynasty Xixia Campaigns