This paper examines Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of personality development, tracing its origins in Freudian thought and its departure toward a socially and culturally grounded model of human growth. The paper outlines each of Erikson's eight developmental stages — from the infant's formation of trust to the elder's confrontation with ego integrity versus despair — and explains the key conflicts each stage presents. It also discusses the historical influences that shaped Erikson's thinking, including ego psychology and his anthropological fieldwork with the Sioux nation, before exploring practical applications of his theory in modern workplace settings.
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development views the development of the human personality as unfolding across a series of developmental stages — much in the manner of Freud, whose study of human sexual development and the family romance of the Oedipal complex dominated the field of psychology in Erikson's era. However, rather than concentrating solely on the development of the individual's sexual identity, Erikson focused on the different stresses that different junctures of the lifecycle present for the individual. Erikson was highly influenced by his work in anthropology, particularly his studies of Sioux Indian society. He is often categorized as a neo-Freudian or a functionalist, in the sense that he was interested in the type of function people play in their respective societies ("Erik Homburger Erikson," 2008).
Erikson acknowledged that culture and society shape our personalities just as much as our families do, and that our inner conflicts are the product of social as well as personal forces (Cramer et al., "Erik Erikson," 1997).
Erikson's major contribution is his idea that human beings do not wrestle continuously with conflicts that have a single basis — namely, sexuality — but that internal conflicts change as our role in society changes. He was one of the first major architects of a personality theory to place personality in a social and cultural light, rather than studying the individual as merely an isolated product of family turmoil. His views on human personality continue to resonate in developmental theory today, even if they are no longer taken as absolute.
Erikson's first stage, the Oral-Sensory Stage, is when an infant strives to form his or her first loving, trusting relationship with a primary caregiver — usually a mother — or develops a sense of mistrust toward that caregiver. The stage revolves around feeding and security, and the mother's offering or withholding of the breast or bottle (Cramer et al., "Introduction to Stages," 1997). Erikson thus took Freud's oral stage of sucking and polymorphous sensuality and recast it as a social conflict between mother and child.
The Muscular-Anal Stage, echoing Freud's anal phase of toilet training, is defined by Erikson as a crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt, in which the child's energies are directed toward developing physical skills. Erikson included walking and grasping as well as toilet training in this phase, noting that the crucial conflict was really one of control and mastery. The goal is for the child to attain a sense of control without developing shame about his or her natural physical developments and needs.
This is followed by the Locomotor Stage — a stage not directly inspired by Freud — which posits a conflict between initiative and guilt, and the child's growing need for independence (i.e., "the terrible twos," where every parental request is met with a "no!"). The child must be allowed to become more assertive and to take more initiative, but not be so forceful as to undermine social learning and harmony (Cramer et al., "Introduction to Stages," 1997).
Erikson agreed with Freud that the Latency Stage occurs during the school years, presenting a struggle between the need to be industrious and the fear of feeling inferior. "The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence" (Cramer et al., "Introduction to Stages," 1997).
During adolescence, with the reassertion of the sexual drive, the adolescent struggles with his or her role in life and with sexual and non-sexual peer relationships. This stage requires the adolescent — aided by peers — to establish a professional, sexual, and moral identity in terms of future occupation, politics, and religion. Young Adulthood extends these adolescent struggles, requiring the individual to develop intimacy with others or risk becoming isolated without family or friends. Young Adulthood leads into Middle Adulthood and parenting, a period characterized by a struggle between generativity and stagnation.
"Ego psychology, biology, and anthropological fieldwork"
"Workplace programs inspired by developmental stage theory"
Despite the fact that the Freudian, non-biological theory of personality development it was based upon has been widely discredited in our modern culture of pharmacology — which tends to view psychological pathology as a biological illness — Erikson's theory ironically seems more relevant than ever. The workforce is increasingly diverse across generations: people work longer than ever before, young people enter careers early to gain a competitive edge, and whole industries take on a generational character, as seen in telecommunications and web-based companies like Google. Understanding the needs of particular age groups is also vital in marketing and advertising, as well as in designing accessible services for specific demographics. Thus Erikson must not be forgotten, even if his developmental stages may not apply perfectly to all cultures and all organizations.
You’re 60% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 2 sections.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.