Facebook, Social Media, and College Student Interpersonal Relationships

Introduction: Technology and Personal Relationships

Technology has greatly impacted the way in which people currently communicate. Generally, there is a shift in how people relate to one another that has been brought about by the global embrace of technology. In many organizations, technology has been considered a rapidly changing variable that exerts a significant effect on how the organization operates, its culture, how internal and external research is conducted, and the practices of employees and other stakeholders such as shareholders, suppliers, and distributors (Orlikowski, 1992).

With the advent of computers and, later, the Internet, there have been revolutionary changes to the world as we once knew it. Both of these innovations have driven the advancement of society socially, intellectually, and economically (Greiffenstern, 2010). Everywhere one looks — at home, in schools, or in the office — something related to the internet is in use, whether it is a casual email, a work-related assignment, or a research task.

There is little doubt that the internet is changing every facet of life and has become an extremely powerful tool, providing people with an array of entertainment options and, most importantly, instant access to information. Students and researchers can receive help with their work, and sites such as Wikipedia, JSTOR, Google, Facebook, and many others have become everyday tools that people find indispensable (Barker, Terry, Melissa, & Pinard, 2009). Email allows people to stay in touch with friends and relatives at little cost, while online publishing, blogs, news sites, educational resources, and social networks like Facebook are literally changing lives. Whether one is an established entrepreneur or an aspiring business owner, the internet provides more information than any other resource in the world.

The internet has also opened profound opportunities for business. Inventors and entrepreneurs continue to emerge, jobs have been created, and numerous business opportunities have arisen, including growth in online advertising and sales platforms such as eBay, Amazon.com, and Overstock.com. By founding major internet companies such as Facebook, Google, Yahoo, and LinkedIn, many individuals have become instant millionaires and even billionaires through the resources offered by the internet.

The internet is remarkable, but new technologies also contradict the culture in which they emerge, and several problems are associated with them. "Those who go online risk becoming addicted to the internet" (Wall, 2001). Other major problems include cybercrimes such as website spoofing, fraud, and spam. Emails enticing recipients with claims of winning millions in an inheritance are used to add victims to spam lists or steal money. eBay fraud, inappropriate adult content reaching teenagers despite parental controls, and other dangers represent the internet's negative influence.

Whether the internet is ultimately beneficial or harmful remains an open question. Society is embracing the profound benefits of internet technology while simultaneously searching for ways to alleviate or eliminate its associated problems — as evidenced by the proliferation of antispyware, antimalware, and antivirus software available today.

In today's world, where information moves at an almost incomprehensible speed, keeping up with current events, appointments, and social life has made it essential for many individuals to utilize advanced technologies just to keep pace (Bargh, McKenna, & Fitzsimons, 2002). The early 21st century saw the beginnings of the internet, which ushered in a new modality of information sharing.

The Internet, however, has its roots in public forums rather than in industry or business communication. The vitality of this medium depends on a continuous stream of individual users who regularly log in, point, click, comment, upload, share, tag, and create content within their individualized internet portals. Since its inception, social media has continued to evolve to meet the needs and desires of its users while also continuously attracting new ones.

College student development is contingent upon a group of sociocultural, cognitive, and psychological tenets that are closely related to the growth experiences of an individual through his or her collegiate experiences (Arnett, 2000; Baym, Zhang, & Lin, 2004). It has been posited that social networking sites will most likely have a significant influence on a student's growth, particularly in the psychosocial arena; however, some argue that there may also be implications in psychological and cognitive areas.

Many argue that because of the use of the internet and other advanced technologies, many people have lost the ability to communicate in more traditional ways: face-to-face conversation, letter writing, and telephone calls. Moreover, internet users are utilizing social media to form interpersonal relationships and even develop romantic relationships in virtual spaces. One of the primary demographics of internet users is college students, who have effectively incorporated social media into their traditional college lives (Lampe, Ellison, & Steinfield, 2006). In many ways, students live both in the physical world and in the virtual world — leading what some consider parallel lives.

Helliwell and Putnam (2004) posit that social networking sites may offer an avenue for the development of greater social capital, which may serve to further reinforce students' likelihood of integrating Facebook and other social media into their regular routines. A suggestion as to the possible reason for a purported decline in mature interpersonal relationships is the rise of social media and advances in technology (Helliwell & Putnam, 2004). The following study builds a base of knowledge regarding several popular social media sites, including Facebook, and examines the role social media plays in college students' development and interpersonal relationships.

Technology has revolutionized and transformed the way in which people relate to one another, greatly impacting communication between individuals. Technological devices thought to drive these effects include televisions, radios, mobile phones, personal computers, laptops, and other handheld devices. These devices have introduced different technologies into our lives and changed how we establish ourselves in day-to-day life and how we relate to one another.

This study seeks to examine students' use of Facebook and other social media and how it primarily impacts their psychosocial development, especially with regard to the development of mature interpersonal relationships as evidenced by Chickering and Reisser's Vector Based Model (1993) of student development, social capital (Lampe et al., 2006), and identity development (Erickson, 1968). The goal of this study is to examine whether there is a link between students' use of social media and student development theory.

Online social networks have been particularly useful for individuals who have difficulties forming strong offline relationships. Research has shown that by having personal relationships online, individuals with low psychological well-being are able to maintain close ties with family and friends (Bargh & McKenna, 2004). Online relationships are also known to reduce the barriers that exist in offline interaction — such as shyness and the absence of a physical connection — and to increase the element of self-disclosure in relationships (Bargh et al., 2002). Social networks therefore enable certain forms of connections and relationships that would otherwise not exist (Tidwell & Walther, 2002).

RQ1: Does the use of Facebook impact college students' development of mature interpersonal relationships?

Hypothesis (null): The use of Facebook does not impact college students' development of mature interpersonal relationships.
Hypothesis (a): The use of Facebook does impact college students' development of mature interpersonal relationships.

RQ2: Is there a difference between males and females in the use of Facebook on the development of mature interpersonal relationships?

Hypothesis (null): There is no difference between males and females in the use of Facebook on the development of mature interpersonal relationships.
Hypothesis (a): There is a difference between males and females in the use of Facebook on the development of mature interpersonal relationships.

RQ3: Does the amount of time an individual spends on Facebook impact the development of interpersonal relationships?

Hypothesis (null): The amount of time an individual spends on Facebook does not impact the development of interpersonal relationships.
Hypothesis (a): The amount of time an individual spends on Facebook does impact the development of interpersonal relationships.

As discussed in the forthcoming literature review, the benefits that social media — particularly Facebook — can have on college students' developmental processes is an important consideration not only for the students themselves, but also for the colleges and universities they attend. Although many administrators, faculty members, and laypersons may argue against the amount of time college students purportedly spend on social media, the reality is that students have integrated social media into their day-to-day activities. For this generation of college students, Facebook and social media occupy the role that a favorite television show may have played for an earlier generation (Hicks, 2010).

As the internet has evolved into a service — not just a portal for commercial communication — it allows information to be provided to and from users through a variety of means. With the development of social media and networks such as Facebook, individuals are now able to connect with other individuals and groups, sharing portions of or all aspects of their lives at a much faster rate than ever before and across a wider network of individuals simultaneously. It is no longer necessary to mail photos and letters and wait for them to arrive; this kind of interchange can now be handled almost instantaneously, with immediate feedback from any number of individuals.

Positive and Negative Effects of Technology on Relationships

Additionally, internet and social media users have the ability to dictate exactly what information is shared and can share information anonymously if they choose. For some students, this may offer a greater degree of freedom and extroversion than they might ordinarily exhibit in their day-to-day experiences. Rather than viewing social media as a negative or adversarial component of students' lives, recognition of Facebook and other social media as tools for effective communication with students may be seen as a valuable resource that students would readily engage with.

Student Development Theory: Research and theory relating to how students in post-secondary college and university environments acquire knowledge and experience the world, including cognitive, psychosocial, person-and-environment, and other aspects.

Social media: Internet-based applications that build on the technological and ideological foundations of the Web, allowing for the exchange and creation of user-generated content (Haenlein & Kaplan, 2010).

Social network: A social structure composed of individuals who exchange messages, information, and other forms of communication through relationships.

Social networking site: A website that allows for the development of networks through various forms of internet communication.

User-generated content: Information that is published and publicly accessible on social media sites, generated outside of commercial and professional practices and routines (Haenlein & Kaplan, 2010).

There are many positive effects of technology. First, with the advent of the Internet, the world has become greatly interconnected, and online communication has greatly eased personal communication across distances. No matter which part of the world a person is in, it is very easy to converse with others through cyberspace.

The Internet has also had a great influence on how couples form and how they relate to one another. Numerous dating sites have emerged, offering matchmaking services that have become extremely popular worldwide. These services help create potential matches by identifying similarities in interests and preferences. Online dating has become a widely accepted replacement for some traditional face-to-face meet-ups and is considered one of the positive effects that technology has had on personal relationships.

Almost all dating sites provide chat rooms — common interaction spaces where people spend free time and meet their matches. Private chat rooms allow two or more people who are interested in each other to have more focused conversations, free from the noise of the common chat areas. This helps to forge a greater bond between those chatting.

Technology has also provided a cheaper and more affordable method of communicating. Communication on websites such as Facebook, Twitter, email platforms, and dating sites is usually free or available at a lower cost than traditional modes such as postal mail or telephone calls. These new communication methods are also considerably faster, and they have had a significant positive impact on how people communicate and thus on personal and interpersonal relationships.

Technology has also had negative effects. One negative implication is that messages which are simple and best delivered face-to-face are now frequently delivered via text message or email. This has largely reduced in-person socialization and has contributed to weakening bonds that were previously forged between people in real life and in the workplace.

There is a convenience afforded by various forms of technology in passing information. However, these forms of technology cannot fully convey the warmth that comes from a face-to-face meeting. It is quite difficult to convey feelings, emotions, and reactions via digital media, and they cannot replace the feeling of a warm handshake or another person's physical presence.

This limitation is visible in the business world. Although it is possible to negotiate a deal by phone or email, businesspeople often feel more comfortable meeting face-to-face. A person's physical presence conveys information — about personality, trustworthiness, and commitment — that cannot be perceived in an email.

Another negative effect of technology is that it reduces the amount of time people spend communicating in real life. According to the Office of National Statistics of the UK government, adults in the United Kingdom spend over 42 days per year at their computers browsing the internet — a significant amount of time given that email and Facebook are among the most common online activities.

In families, parents report that children spend an excessive amount of time on technological devices rather than bonding with the family. Children often bring laptops, mobile phones, or other handheld devices to the dinner table or family outings, negatively impacting family time and increasing the disconnect between children and parents.

In romantic relationships, technology has also displaced activities that were once central to courtship — such as handwritten love letters sent by post or dressing up for a dinner date. These have been replaced by e-cards, emails, video calls via services like Skype, and digital messages. Saying "I love you" on Facebook simply does not carry the same weight as saying those words face-to-face; technology cuts out the otherwise meaningful moments created by in-person conversation. This represents one of the more significant negative impacts of technology on personal relationships.

This chapter provides a thorough and integrative review of the pertinent literature and its relationship to social media, college students, and the impact, if any, social media has on the development of mature interpersonal relationships. The review includes an overview of the development of Facebook and how it is used, perspectives on other forms of social media, and a discussion of how institutions of higher learning can incorporate social media.

Literature Review: Online Communities, Emotion, and Interpersonal Theory

Chickering and Reisser (1993) posit that psychosocial development occurs in a vector-based model that includes seven key vectors, some divided into more specific components. The vectors are: developing competence, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, managing emotions, developing mature interpersonal relationships, developing purpose, establishing identity, and developing integrity. These concepts are central to the scholarly literature reviewed here.

To understand how students use Facebook for personal relationships, it is important to first analyze why people would want to have relationships online. Kaufman (1996) states that there is a loss of the art of conversation as more and more people turn to online relationships and communication. Three major reasons lead people to pursue online relationships: to have a sense of community, for affiliation, and for social interaction.

On various social networks, users are referred to as a community — the Facebook community, the Twitter community, and so on. Many people who pursue online relationships can be thought of as lonely individuals searching for a "sense of community," meaning a feeling of belonging to a group of people with similar interests (Kling, 1996). This search for community has been a predominant theme among internet users in the United States. The shared interests of community members fuel online bonds between them. It is thought that those who are unable to find a community in the real world are often able to find one in the virtual world (Anstey, 1999).

Several benefits can be accrued by those who join online communities. While online communities may be smaller in membership, the bonds between their members are often more closely knit than those in offline communities — though this distinction is most apparent to those who participate in both (Kling, 1996).

Researchers have investigated online communities across dimensions such as how members relate to each other, different types of members, and why people value these communities. Baym (1998) found that there are different types of relationships between members of online communities, and that bonds continue to grow and strengthen, compelling members to return each day. This partly explains why Facebook grew to more than 400 million users, approximately 100 million of whom visited the site on a daily basis.

Baym found that members of online communities develop an emotional investment in one another, which keeps them returning to social networks. These community members also develop shared rituals (Baym et al., 2004). Furthermore, Baym found that people are more likely to form relationships with those they meet in online communities than with individuals encountered at a specific location in a face-to-face setting, and that relationships are based on common interests rather than physical appearance (Baym et al., 2004).

Walther (1992) argues that affiliation is one of the factors that drives online interaction between members of online communities. "Affiliation is an axiomatic principle that humans are driven to interact with one another and seek social rewards from others" (Anstey, 1999). Walther notes that people expend considerable energy attempting to be noticed, liked, and appreciated by others — a form of social energy distinct from physical, emotional, or psychological energy (Walther, 1992).

Members of online communities, like people who communicate face-to-face, have an innate desire to interact in a personal and rewarding way. Daft and Lengel (1986, p. 555) argue that simpler methods of communication emerged "to accomplish Internet tasks, to coordinate diverse activities, and interpret the internal environment," and this may be one of the bases for developing relationships and making them socially acceptable (Daft & Lengel, 1986, p. 555).

Anstey (1999) observes that "community life in North American cities is unraveling — some people hope that people can meet and enrich their social lives at work and home via computer networks." As noted by Kling (1996), offline communities are decreasing in popularity partly as a result of fear — of street crime, peer pressure, and other social hazards — that discourages face-to-face interaction.

This is one of the significant reasons behind the growth of online communities. People feel they can replicate real-life social activities online: getting opinions on clothing through shared photos, shopping online and receiving deliveries, earning degrees via distance learning, and chatting with friends and family through audio, video, or text messaging — all from the safety and comfort of home. People are able to socialize with old friends, make new ones, and join communities that ease the transition from newcomer to established member.

In real life, people are often burdened by daily obligations and may feel too tired to venture out for face-to-face socializing. Those with restricted lifestyles — for example, people with physical disabilities — find solace in online communities, which allow them to interact with others without feeling excluded.

Email is argued to give previously invisible or marginalized individuals the ability to become more socially visible. In online communities, there is rarely overt discrimination based on age, race, gender, or social class, enabling people from lower social strata to communicate with those in higher social positions (Sproull & Kiesler, 1996). While online communities cannot eliminate social stratification, they enable members to make connections and "heighten the sense of social solidarity in an organization" (Anstey, 1999).

To fully understand how social networks — and Facebook in particular — have impacted personal relationships, it is necessary to understand how people come to use the internet in the first place. Internet access and usage have grown exponentially over the past decade. All that is needed for basic internet access is a modem, a computer, and an Internet Service Provider (ISP). These items are widely available and affordable. More advanced connections — such as triple-play services combining broadband, cable TV, and VOIP — offer faster speeds but require additional equipment.

As internet connectivity prices have fallen, usage has surged not only in the United States but worldwide, including in less-developed regions. When the internet first emerged, it was most popular with those working in computing and information technology. Over time, its appeal has shifted to a much broader population: lovers, friends, hobbyists, researchers, and political organizations, among others.

The popularity of the internet is largely driven by the ease, affordability, and accessibility with which users can find information, chat at any hour, post advertisements, send event invitations, and much more. The development of user-friendly software — such as instant messaging applications that alert users to new messages or when contacts come online — has further expanded its appeal.

Anstey (1999) argues that the internet's growth over the last several decades shows no sign of slowing, noting that since its origins in the late 1960s it has grown by between 30 and 40 million users. However, research specifically examining internet usage as it relates to personal relationships remains limited, and it is not yet possible to make definitive statements about whether particular genders use the internet more for personal relationships than others.

There are many ways in which people use the internet to form personal relationships, including groups and bulletin boards. On Facebook, for instance, thousands of groups exist around subjects such as politics, entertainment, news, and humor. These groups bring together members with similar interests, which — as described above — is a major driver of online community bonds.

There are two broad lines of thought regarding online personal relationships. One view holds that they are impersonal, encourage hostility due to anonymity, and are fundamentally shallow — an illusion that does not constitute a real relationship or community.

The other view takes a more liberal position, arguing that online personal relationships are essentially face-to-face relationships mediated by computers. This line of thought argues that "computer-mediated communication liberates interpersonal relationships from the confines of physical locality and thus creates opportunities for new, but genuine, personal relationships and communities" (Anstey, 1999; Parks & Floyd, 1996).

Anstey (1999) argues that "those who view online relationships more negatively point to a reduction in social cues." Missing cues in online interactions include nonverbal signals, appearance, body movements, physical qualities, and facial expressions.

Internet connections that enable face-to-face video communication are, in many cases, expensive, as video chat uses significant bandwidth and is considered a premium service above basic internet needs (Daft & Lengel, 1986).

"Researchers have reported that in online settings there are more incidences of flaming (Hiltz & Johnson, 1989) and that people have greater difficulty recognizing and moving towards shared points of view (Sproull & Kiesler, 1996). It is these social disadvantages that should prevent positive relationships from occurring frequently in online settings." (Anstey, 1999)

Despite these disadvantages, online personal relationships continue to flourish. Some scholars argue that the reason these disadvantages do not deter people is that online interaction creates a "magic" feeling in participants. The reality of the relationship is not diminished by the absence of face-to-face meetings, and the significance of the relationship is not reduced by this lack of direct contact. Those accustomed to online relationships adapt easily to reduced social cues, and some develop their own verbal conventions to represent missing nonverbal signals (Lea & Spears, 1995).

The Media Richness Theory, first developed by Daft and Lengel, explains that social networks are not considered "rich" media when it comes to developing personal relationships, because they provide reduced social cues. The authors assert that communication on platforms such as Facebook tends to be less friendly, less emotional, and more task-oriented (Daft & Lengel, 1986).

In contrast, Rice and Love (1987) found that social networks do support emotional communication. Features such as emoticons, abbreviations like "LOL," and other conventions allow users to express emotion and adapt to reduced social cues (Rice & Love, 1987). Another method of expressing emotion online is the use of CAPITAL LETTERS to indicate a raised voice or emphasis (Walther, 1992). Walther (1992) further points out that these emotional conventions help to "conceptualize the message" within the context of the personal relationship and become conventional among those who use them regularly.

The social presence theory offers another lens for understanding emotional expression on social networks. The theory holds that even over text-based platforms, where information passes more slowly, it is possible to communicate love and intimacy and to develop trust and self-disclosure in online personal relationships (Lea & Spears, 1995).

Walther (1992) argues that even though text-based platforms do not readily convey social cues, and even though information is transmitted more slowly than in face-to-face interaction, people's characteristics will continue to develop online and they will gradually add social cues and emotional expression to their digital conversations. The author acknowledges that the number of people using the internet to develop personal relationships has been increasing and that these individuals feel secure in their online interactions despite limited or no face-to-face contact.

The field of online personal relationships has not attracted extensive research. Lea and Spears (1995) suggest that "the study of online relationships throws up various challenges that are not easily met by the addition of some simple contingencies to current social psychological models of relationship processes" (Lea & Spears, 1995, p. 198). Much of the research on personal relationships has focused on face-to-face interaction, overlooking online personal relationships almost entirely.

Research on face-to-face personal relationships emphasizes the power of physical attraction as the primary factor in relationship formation. Qualities inferred from physical appearance — intelligence, personality, similarities, and social desirability — are considered central (Lea & Spears, 1995). In online communication, however, physical attraction has minimal relevance, and previous models of relationship formation cannot be directly applied.

Three models of communication can be applied to online personal relationships. The first is Baxter's (1990) Dialectical Theory, which identifies three contrasts of intimacy in how partners deal with one another: (1) autonomy versus connectedness, (2) familiarity versus novelty, and (3) openness versus closeness. Baxter argues that even when partners meet online, it is possible for them to develop strong, emotionally invested relationships that progress similarly to offline relationships, with the caveat that satisfying each other's needs is more complex in the absence of physical presence (Baxter, 1990).

The autonomy-versus-connectedness contrast arises because the computer creates a sense of connection through online interaction, while simultaneously creating a sense of autonomy given the absence of face-to-face engagement. The novelty-versus-familiarity contrast appears because online routines can become predictable and monotonous in ways that face-to-face encounters — which offer more varied scenarios — might not. The openness-versus-closeness contrast emerges from the lack of social cues, which makes the relationship feel less open, even as partners feel a strong desire for closeness.

This is one way in which interpersonal communication theory is applied to online personal relationships, though further research is needed to evaluate its full applicability.

Online personal relationships produce different effects in different people. From the perspective of those involved, these relationships are genuine and can create a deeper connection between partners. This is reflected in the high number of people who, after pursuing an online relationship for a time, decide to meet face-to-face. Some of these individuals reportedly form stronger real-life friendships than their offline counterparts — possibly because the relationship is based on shared interests rather than physical attractiveness (Bruckman, 1996).

Parks and Floyd (1996) found that relationships that begin online rarely, if ever, stay exclusively online. They typically develop to include other forms of communication — telephone, postal mail — and gradually evolve into face-to-face meetings (Parks & Floyd, 1996). This represents an effective means by which those in online relationships overcome the limitations of the medium, including the reduced representation of emotion.

Online communities of self-help groups have also emerged to create accessible support networks with a degree of member autonomy. Examples include groups for Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, cancer patients, expectant mothers, and survivors of physical and sexual abuse. These virtual groups do not merely share information; they also provide social interaction for members who feel free to discuss their concerns under the protection of anonymity (Lea & Spears, 1995).

Another positive effect of online personal relationships is that they reduce the element of shyness. By first interacting online, an otherwise shy individual can build confidence in the person they are communicating with, which may reduce shyness when the relationship later transitions to face-to-face interaction.

There are also negative effects of online personal relationships. One is misrepresentation — people have reported discovering that the individual they were communicating with misrepresented their gender, sexual orientation, or physical appearance through the use of fake photographs. Cases of online sexual harassment have also been reported. As one researcher bluntly observed: "I am sure everything bad that happens online happens offline too" (Baym et al., 2004, p. 5).