History of Higher Education and American Universities

Ancient and Medieval Foundations of Education

Understanding the origins and development of higher education is essential for those beginning graduate study. The American higher education system derives its foundation from the original ideology of European education. Two Greek pioneers, Plato and Aristotle, established the Academy in 387 BC and the Lyceum in 335 BC, respectively. Over the next few centuries, significant educational developments emerged across multiple regions and traditions. Palestine, Babylonia, India, China, and Egypt each developed their own systems of advanced learning. Jewish, Buddhist, and Islamic religions each established their own educational institutions during this period, and these contributions were equally important in the expansion of graduate studies.

European University Development

The development of universities in Western Europe began when groups of students traveled from their home countries to various locations to witness instructors lecture about specific topics. Numerous universities were established in Europe during the twelfth century. England, Germany, Bohemia, and Poland each saw the inauguration of their first university. The primary model for European institutions originated from the University of Paris, which became the central establishment for the study of philosophy and theology. In Italy, the University of Bologna became known for the study of law, and the University of Salerno became renowned for the study of medicine. Future universities in Italy and Spain modeled their institutions after the University of Bologna.

Medieval universities were comprised exclusively of males; no females were granted admission. Medieval institutions offered trivium and quadrivium curricula, establishing a precedent for modern liberal arts education. The Renaissance introduced the idea of humanism in education, with scholars becoming more interested in what literature revealed about life on Earth rather than religious doctrine. This emphasis changed after the Protestant Reformation. During the sixteenth century, religious doctrines became the focal points of academics. The Catholic and Protestant churches began to take control of educational institutions, requiring courses to emphasize theology as well as training for priests, ministers, lawyers, and physicians.

Education in Colonial and Early America

With the settlement of North America came new colleges and universities that incorporated concepts from European scholarship. Each group of colonists established institutions that reflected those of its home country as well as its own educational goals. The British used Oxford and Cambridge as models. French Catholics founded the College de Jesuites as the first college in Canada. Puritans established Harvard, which focused on ministry studies. Scottish influences introduced the idea of mathematics and science as focal studies rather than liberal arts. An American student named Benjamin Rush helped establish the College of Philadelphia after studying medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland. Other colleges and universities established during this period included the College of William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, and King's College, which later became Columbia University.

The Evolution of American Higher Education

After the Treaty of Paris in 1783 made the independence of the United States official, state colleges began to emerge. Schools including the University of Georgia, the University of North Carolina, the University of Tennessee, and the University of South Carolina were established. Founding Father Thomas Jefferson disagreed with the way higher education was being conducted and believed that institutions should not be controlled by churches. Instead, they should be publicly controlled and secular. Jefferson founded the University of Virginia in 1819. Modern and scientific studies were incorporated into the curriculum, while traditional and classical programs were also offered. Students had the choice to take alternative courses instead of following a single prescribed program. Because of the innovative approach demonstrated by Jefferson, these policies became the foundation upon which future state colleges and universities would be built, including Indiana University and the University of Wisconsin. Coinciding with the transfer of educational control from religious to secular authorities, various religious denominations began establishing their own institutions.

Dissatisfied with the prominence of liberal arts education in American universities, United States Representative Justin S. Morrill drafted the Morrill Act in 1857. This act, passed by Congress in 1862, granted public land to each state to be used for agricultural and mechanical colleges and universities. These schools became known as land-grant colleges. The Morrill Act of 1890 provided Agricultural and Mechanical colleges and universities with federal funds. Specifically, these funds were designated to establish institutions for African American students in states that did not allow them to attend land-grant colleges constructed with funds from the first Morrill Act. Although originally designed to focus particularly on agriculture and mechanics, present-day Agricultural and Mechanical colleges and universities offer a comprehensive range of programs including liberal arts, professional studies, and engineering.

Contemporary Graduate Education

Graduate education in the United States today mirrors many of the concepts of the original European ideology of education but has been adjusted considerably to reflect the evolution of society. Significant changes include the inclusion of women and minorities in education, the addition of technical programs to curricula, as well as federal funding for military personnel, which led to the expansion of universities across the country.