Ivan the Terrible: Tsar, Tyrant, and Legacy of Fear

Introduction: The Meaning of 'Terrible'

Ivan IV — known to history as Ivan the Terrible — deserves the moniker attached to his name, though not necessarily in the modern sense of the word. Certainly, Ivan did terrible things both in his position as the first true tsar of Russia and as the leader of a family. Nevertheless, the translation of the Russian word Groznyi into English by modern standards is not entirely accurate. In Russian during Ivan's time, Groznyi meant something closer to "formidable" or "fearsome."^[1] Through his political and social actions, a nation — and the wider world — had every reason to view Ivan as both formidable and fearsome.

Early Life, Regency, and the Road to Power

The baby destined to become Ivan IV was born to Tsar Vasily III and his second wife, Elena Glinskaia. Vasily III was considerably older than Ivan's mother, and by the time Ivan was born, he was desperate for a son to serve as the future tsar of Russia. Vasily's first wife, Solomonia, had never produced a child of either sex.^[2] After years of marriage, Vasily pursued a controversial divorce and remarriage. He received permission from the Metropolitan Daniel in Russia, but also sought approval from the Greek Patriarch, who may have inadvertently cursed the unborn Ivan. The Patriarch wrote to Vasily: "If you contract a second marriage, you will have a wicked son; your states will be prey to terror and tears; rivers of blood will flow; the heads of the mighty will fall; your cities will be devoured by flames."^[3]

Nevertheless, Vasily remarried, and Ivan was born five years after the wedding on August 25, 1530. His entrance into the world was followed by the birth of a second son, Iuri, on October 30, 1532, who was deaf and mute.^[4] Vasily was ecstatic at Ivan's birth. Thunder and lightning were said to have accompanied the moment, which was interpreted as a good omen for his future.^[5] Others were less optimistic. The Tatar Khan of Kazan commented to visiting Russian boyars: "A sovereign has been born to you and he already has two teeth. With one, he will devour us; but with the other, he will devour you!"^[6] The Khan could not have known how soon Ivan would rise to power.

Just a few months after Iuri's birth, Vasily died in February 1533 following a hunting injury. Wisely anticipating the problems that would arise with an heir only three years old, Vasily established a Regency Council of seven members to govern until Ivan was old enough to rule on his own.^[7] The nation that the young Ivan inherited had fairly recently pushed the Mongol Horde back to the east. Through the work of Vasily and his father, Ivan III, the principality of Moscow had expanded through the annexation of the northeastern principality of Rus.^[8] Ivan's father and grandfather had done much to secure his inheritance and assure the integrity of Muscovy by increasing its territory, creating an effective administrative system, and converting the former warriors of the region into loyal servants of the monarchy.^[9]

Ivan's future seemed assured; however, many difficult years would ensue before he reached a position of real power. The regency period was long and turbulent as various factions battled for influence. Ivan's primary guardian, Mikhail Glinski — an uncle to Ivan's mother — was arrested just a year after Vasily's death.^[10] Ivan fell victim to the resulting power struggle and suffered greatly as a child. This suffering was compounded by the death of Elena Glinskaia in 1538. Ivan later documented his childhood, and his accounts are confirmed in other chronicles of the period. He claims that he and his brother were ignored, ill-fed, and disrespected by the boyars.^[11]

Despite the mistreatment and intrigues of the court, Ivan had the freedom to roam his future kingdom, which he often did while hunting. Much like his mother, he also frequented monasteries, where he engaged in religious discussion with monks. He acquired much of his knowledge through contact with these individuals and others who lived within the palace walls. Ivan was said to be quick and highly intelligent, reading, writing, and discussing ideas extensively.^[12]

All of this prepared him for the daunting task of being the future tsar. Before he took power himself, Ivan had the opportunity to observe the struggle between the various clans as they vied for control. The predominant ones were the Shuiskiis, the Belskiis, and the Vorontsovs. Despite their conflicts with one another, these families were careful not to allow the power of the monarchy to decline; they simply wanted to share in it. Surprisingly, they had the best interest of the monarchy at heart. These families — and Elena before her death — were responsible for initiating some reforms and instituting positive changes, such as standardizing currency and improving fortifications.^[13]