Why Lee Engaged at Gettysburg: Strategy and Defeat

Introduction: Gettysburg in Historical Context

"Four score and seven years ago." The Battle of Gettysburg is today remembered best in the popular imagination as the inspiration for President Lincoln's famous address. Lincoln wrote: "…from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion," and resolved to fight on in what ultimately became a successful Union effort.¹ From the Confederate perspective, of course, the battle was quite the opposite — it became the source of dashed hopes and dreams.

Gettysburg is also famous for the bloody nature of the engagement, occurring relatively late in the American Civil War. It was fought from July 1–3, 1863, and proved in retrospect decisive in securing a Union victory, tipping the then-delicate balance in favor of the Union army.² It must be remembered that at the time, a Union victory was far from a foregone conclusion. Although the Confederacy was weaker militarily, Lincoln had suffered a series of disastrous conflicts with his generals, and public support for the war was weak in many quarters. A number of European nations were also highly dependent upon the cotton the South provided.

Lee's Strategic and Political Motivations

Lee hoped to push Confederate forces as far north as possible. After a series of successive victories against superior numbers, Lee felt he was in an excellent position to intimidate the North and, politically, to encourage surrender. Historians have called Lee's aims more political than tactical.³ Lee hoped that Northern supporters of surrender would become more vocal, and he also sought to secure diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy from Britain and France.⁴

In his own account of the reasons for undertaking the battle, Lee cited both strategic and morale considerations: "It was thought…a fair opportunity to strike a blow at the army then commanded by General Hooker, and that in any event that army would be compelled to leave Virginia, and, possibly, to draw to its support troops designed to operate against other parts of the country."⁵

Tactical Errors and the Cost of Confederate Boldness

Unfortunately for his men, Lee's greatest strength — his confidence — also proved to be his greatest weakness at Gettysburg. Lee had also been deprived of his most capable subordinate, Stonewall Jackson, who had fallen at the Battle of Chancellorsville, where the Confederates had emerged victorious.⁶ Still, even though Lee had hoped to score a decisive victory, he later wrote that he had felt compelled to attack sooner than he had initially planned, well aware that Confederate troops had secured fewer provisions than intended, deeming the country "unfavorable for collecting supplies."⁷ He also noted that even when unexpectedly attacked, withdrawing through such mountainous territory was extremely difficult.⁸

Although in overall numbers Lee's army was considered the underdog, Union leadership was in great turmoil at this time. Major General George Gordon Meade had recently been appointed by President Lincoln to succeed General Joseph Hooker. During the first day of battle, the Union Army was aided by a number of tactical errors on Lee's part, including his decision to attack at Culp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge — a decision made against the advice of his second-in-command, James Longstreet.⁹ In retrospect, Lee showed a great deal of hubris and failed to defend his relatively weak army against Union aggression. The boldness that had served him well in earlier battles resulted in very high casualties during the first days of fighting on both sides, causing Lee to lose men he could ill afford to sacrifice.

Conclusion: The Legacy of Gettysburg

It will never be known what the outcome would have been if Meade had followed Lincoln's suggestion. Regardless, it is clear that the errors on Lee's side were greater, and as heavy as the casualties were on the Union side, the Confederacy never recovered its military or political advantage. The myth of Lee's invincibility had been shattered — in the eyes of his troops and in Lee's own self-conception. If Lee had hoped to secure a public relations advantage, his actions ultimately accomplished precisely the opposite and further emboldened the Union.