Operation TORCH and Operational Art in North Africa, 1942

Introduction and Operational Environment

This assessment reviews the Norfolk Group's outline plan for Operation TORCH and its supporting documents to evaluate how well TORCH supports Mediterranean/North Africa Theater of Operations (M/NATO) objectives and how well it incorporates the main elements of operational art and design. As directed, the analysis uses operational design methodology as outlined in JP 5-0 to frame the North African campaign before addressing TORCH as a major operation nested within that campaign.

The operational environment encompasses North Africa from Morocco to the Suez Canal — that is, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Control of the Suez Canal is the overriding strategic goal. Spain is neutral in Morocco and poses no immediate military threat, though it could potentially align with Axis forces. Vichy France holds French Morocco, but its loyalty to the Axis is questionable. The primary threat is Rommel's Afrika Korps, the armored force operating in Libya and Egypt and pressing toward the canal.

Allied Theater End State and the Central Problem

The Allies' M/NATO theater-level desired end state is to control all of North Africa and the route to Middle Eastern oil through the Suez Canal, achieved by annihilating Axis forces throughout the entire region. Control of this route is critical because whoever dominates access to Middle Eastern oil controls the industrial capacity needed to sustain the war effort. Command of North Africa and the approaches to the Middle East also opens an avenue for an Allied invasion of Southern Europe. The required extent of control runs from French Morocco — and potentially Spanish Morocco — to the Red Sea, with complete destruction of Axis forces in between.

The central problem preventing the Allies from achieving this end state is that Axis forces block the path to the Suez Canal, with Rommel's Afrika Korps posing the most formidable obstacle in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts. The Axis controls most of Northwest Africa and now threatens to sever the Suez Canal, a vital link in Allied supply chains. Desert conditions impose severe limitations on extended logistics, compounding the challenge. Consequently, capturing key port cities such as Oran and Algiers is essential, as is ensuring the security of Gibraltar and the continued neutrality — or at least indifference — of both Spain and Vichy France.

The Axis desired end state is to cut the Suez Canal and seize control of access to the Persian Gulf. Achieving this would gravely undermine Allied power, deny the Allies critical oil reserves, and allow the Axis to boost its own industrial production. It would also close the Mediterranean to Allied use and eliminate the threat of a Southern European invasion.

Axis Center of Gravity and Critical Factors

The Axis Center of Gravity is Rommel's Afrika Korps in Libya and Egypt. This force is the primary instrument capable of severing the Suez Canal and achieving the Axis end state.

The Critical Capabilities are the means to achieve total control of North Africa: the Axis must maintain combined forces across Northwest Africa — including Rommel's Panzers and Vichy-controlled French Morocco — to prosecute simultaneous operations across the theater.

The Critical Requirements are those elements needed to sustain the Panzers in the field. Without secure port cities and overland supply routes, the armored forces in Libya and Egypt cannot be maintained. Control of Gibraltar and the key port cities of Northwest Africa is essential to keeping those supply lines intact.

The Critical Vulnerability is Gibraltar's exposure due to Spanish neutrality and the uncertain allegiance of Vichy France. The Axis cannot guarantee the security of its western flank while Spain remains neutral and while Vichy France's loyalties are in doubt. This vulnerability, if exploited by the Allies, would sever supply to the Panzers and undermine the entire Axis position in the theater.

Allied Operational Approach for the M/NATO Campaign

As described in JP 5-0, the operational approach reflects the commander's visualization of a broad method for achieving the desired end state given an understanding of both the operational environment and the central problem. The Allied operational approach in the M/NATO campaign begins with the immediate objective of establishing control of Gibraltar by combining land, sea, and air forces in an assault on Algeria. The assault phase also includes simultaneous attacks on the key ports of Oran, Algiers, and Bone. Because Spain is neutral, it should not pose an immediate military threat, but the region must be secured to prevent Axis forces from exploiting Vichy France's position.

At Oran, the plan calls for one regimental combat team at the Gulf of Arzeu and another at Bay des Andalouses to execute pre-dawn landings. Three assault-loaded combat teams and a light armored force will be required to secure the seaport and the surrounding airfields at La Sénia and Tafaraoui.

At Algiers, a regimental combat team will land at Sidi Ferruch, Castiglione, and Aïn Taya, supported by three assault-loaded teams and a light armored element to gain control of the port of Algiers and the airfields at Maison Blanche and Hussein Dey.

At Bone, a combat team executing a pre-dawn landing at Cape de Garde will be needed. A U.S. Ranger battalion with British support will secure the seaport at Bone and the airfield at Dozzerville.

Following these initial landings, six divisions will consolidate the Allied position eastward from Algiers, while seven divisions will consolidate westward from Oran. These divisions will open supply routes across the North African desert. The essence of the campaign is to destroy Axis forces and eliminate Rommel's Panzer division by capturing the strongholds in key ports, thereby incapacitating the Axis and forcing Germany to seek an alternative oil supply — without which it cannot sustain a prolonged war.