This paper examines the psychoanalytic model as established by Sigmund Freud, tracing its evolution from a therapeutic method to an interdisciplinary framework applied across sociology, literature, and anthropology. It discusses the theory of psychosexual development, the concept of libidinal fixation, and the resulting personality types that emerge when development is interrupted or interrupted. The paper presents Freud's four primary personality archetypes—oral, anal, phallic, and genital—each characterized by distinct behavioral patterns rooted in childhood developmental stages. Finally, it evaluates criticisms of psychoanalytic theory and examines how theoretical controversies reveal fundamental shifts in explanatory models rather than minor conceptual adjustments.
People today are familiar with psychoanalysis after its wide rejection as well as adulation over many years. Paradoxically, the success realized in the fifth decade, particularly in Europe, divorced it from its core principles. It spread widely, but not because of the attention drawn to its therapeutic methods. Rather, therapy was overshadowed by its application in other fields. Psychoanalysis is used in sociology, literature, anthropology, mythology, religion, and ethnology.
Psychoanalysis is applied in three distinct areas: as a method of investigating the mind, particularly the unconscious mind; as a form of therapy for neurosis inspired by this investigative method; and as an independent discipline based on knowledge derived from investigative methods and clinical experience. Psychoanalytical science is exemplified in Freud's study Totem and Taboo, in which he conducts anthropological and social analysis heavily relying on knowledge gained from applying psychoanalysis to the treatment of neurosis.
The theory proposes that as children progress through five psychosexual development stages, their libidinal energy is continually reattached—a process Freud termed cathexis—to other things or objects. Using Freud's terminology, the aggressive or sexual desires a child possesses are unconsciously mentally represented by these objects. In early development stages, the focus of libidinal energy is targeted at infantile objects. If the child develops successfully through these stages, cathexis will be directed toward more mature objects. However, regression or fixation is possible if early development stages are characterized by trauma or overindulgence, meaning the child's libidinal energy becomes stuck at a lower stage.
Freud's proposed typology of personality is based on this concept of fixation. He argued that people with disproportionate libidinal energy invested in any particular stage will display personalities that characterize that stage. Freud's explanation of both pathological and normal personalities is founded on the several ways someone can progress through development stages. The most successful and healthy progression is assigned to individuals who advance through the process without having their libidinal energy fixated at an earlier stage. Freud used an analogy of an army continuously advancing toward its target: if the army drops or leaves behind soldiers at certain bases as it moves forward, it will lack the strength needed to win the major battle—in Freud's case, coping with the realities and cruelties of life.
Sadly, Freud acknowledged that some degree of regression or fixation is unavoidable. He contended that everyone develops some level of fixations, leaving individuals predestined for a degree of immaturity and attachment to childish objects. When explaining how fixation occurs, Freud proposed that the tendency toward fixation is partly hereditary and constitutional, meaning that irrespective of external causes, some people are more likely to become fixated than others. The particular triggers of fixation can occur regardless of an individual's susceptibility. Fixations can develop at a particular psychosexual stage if the child feels so comfortable there that moving to another stage causes frustration and distress. Additionally, if trauma occurs or the child is unhappy during the stage, fixation to that particular stage can develop.
The oral personality considers the mouth as the primary pleasure source, engaging excessively in drinking and eating. Alcoholism, obesity, smoking, and drug abuse can be attributed to oral fixations. Since individuals suffering from substance addictions and eating disorders are disposed to consuming food excessively or abusing drugs, Freud's theory explaining such predispositions appears to hold validity—it seems to satisfactorily explain these behaviors.
Some of Freud's followers divided oral personalities into two subtypes. The most popular is called the oral passive, oral dependent, or oral receptive personality. The second is the oral aggressive personality, which tends toward negativity and habitual biting or sarcastic comments. Unlike passive individuals, people with oral aggression are demanding, manipulative, and distrustful. These contrasting patterns demonstrate how fixation at the same developmental stage can manifest in markedly different behavioral expressions.
The anal personality has excess libido fixated on pleasures discovered during toilet training. As children learn to control body waste, they become concerned with not dirtying themselves and ensuring they defecate at appropriate times. They derive pleasure from defecation and from the praise the parent gives afterward. Libido fixation at the anal stage results in a personality where the person is controlling, seeks extreme order and precision, and is rigid in behavioral standards. Since this personality emerges during superego formation, a fixation at the anal stage may produce an overly controlling and moralistic style.
Freud suggested that children at this developmental stage view feces release as a gift to a parent—a gift that can be withheld or given. Children release feces if they feel loved sufficiently and withhold if they do not feel sufficiently loved. According to Freud, feces become a form of currency in the relationship between parent and child, dispensable or retainable, thereby affording the child some control over the relationship and their environment.
Freud believed that fixations during the phallic development stage produce distinct personality types. As previously discussed, the Oedipal crisis occurs at the phallic stage, and fixations encountered there are thought to greatly impact the child's personality. Because of the sexual nature of the Oedipal crisis, associated fixations tend to lean toward sexuality.
A fixation at this stage can cause narcissism, lead to excessive egoism, or produce an overly sexualized personality that may involve serial marriage, polyandry, or polygamy. A person with this personality tends to use sexual emotions in releasing stress and tends to engage in superficial sexual relationships devoid of affection or love. Freud believed that strength or assertiveness in women could be explained by fixations at this stage and failure to resolve the Oedipal crisis. This failure resulted in what Freud called the masculinity complex, a complication he identified in girls. When girls drift from the incestuous love they have for their fathers—which is genitally significant—they abandon their femininity. They embrace their masculinity and thereafter want to be boys.
"Mature personality development without neurotic fixations"
"Theoretical controversies reveal paradigm shifts in explanatory models"
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