Renaissance to Industrial Revolution: Architecture & Management History

Introduction and Scope

"History is a symphony of echoes heard and unheard. It is a poem with events as verses." — Charles Angoff

This chapter investigates the history of modern societies in terms of four research topics: project environments (cultural advancement, scientific and economic development); general management (continuous improvement of management skill); knowledge of application area (gradual establishment of architectural principles, construction technology, and the master builder tradition); and project activities (using building construction and engineering works as research examples).

History of the Renaissance

Vast amounts of historical research into the eras of human cultures are addressed in this study. The roots of modern Western history have been unearthed, described, and interpreted in many ways over the centuries in countless important texts. Therefore, the historical background of the specific research into buildings and building practices can take the form only of brief summaries. These summaries of cultural, economic, social, and scientific history are meant merely as broad indications of the environment within which the particular history of building construction has been placed. It is important to understand this background, but only as a general field within which the more important research into construction project management occurs.

Historical research on building construction and project management is also extensive. Many of the building and project organizational techniques of modern societies have been extensively studied. This is of great benefit to contemporary historians of building construction, as there is already a wide field of data available for interpretation and synthesis. Many specific practices of building have been outlined for various cultures, including techniques of labor organization and management styles. Most surviving medieval buildings have been subject to analysis and discussion. As a result, scholars over the centuries have built up a significant body of literature that is relevant and useful for this study.

However, it is precisely in the areas of interpretation and synthesis that many of these studies fall short. Often the focus is on a single culture, building, or time period. Alternatively, a building is sometimes analyzed from an aesthetic or artistic perspective rather than in terms of the methods and modes of construction management. As a result, there are far fewer studies that attempt to synthesize knowledge or break fresh ground by proposing new sketches of the overall development of project management practices.

This chapter attempts to remedy that deficit. A review of current literature provides an extensive historical survey of four recognized periods of modern Western civilization. By bringing together a diverse range of research, it fills the aforementioned knowledge gap. It begins in the early modern era of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution, and continues through the late modern era from the Industrial Revolution to the Machine Age.

Metaphorically speaking, the term Renaissance has been associated with rebirth and images of freedom, light, openness, and creativity. These connotations stem from the historical origins of the Renaissance, which took place approximately from the mid-15th to the early 17th centuries and was a foundational period in European history. This period saw the emergence of a different intellectual as well as artistic view of life and reality. The creative sources of the classical era were revivified, and there was a resurgence of a more interrogative and questioning attitude toward life and reality.

It should be pointed out that the Renaissance should not be understood in a historical sense as a sudden, radical break from the Dark Ages that preceded it. Rather, the Renaissance should be considered a period of questioning and reassessment of all aspects of life in an intellectual, religious, economic, political, and artistic sense. To generalize, it was a cardinal period of European history in which a wide range of interlinking social and philosophical views underwent profound change. As will be discussed in more detail below, these changes were the result of an extensive array of social, political, and intellectual factors—including, for instance, the growth of expansive cities where ideas were shared and exchanged, in contrast to the decline of the more isolated feudal cultures of the previous era.

Central to this period was the growth of technology and scientific thought, which were also instrumental in opening up new horizons of possibility and breaking down previous norms and boundaries that affected the way people thought and perceived reality. Other important factors include the growth of humanist philosophy and the rise of the mercantile classes and international trade, all of which added to the fundamental impetus toward new ideas and views of life.

This resurgent spirit of the Renaissance is clearly evident in the arts and architecture of the period. Central to the spirit of the period was the growth of learning and education, coupled with concomitant growth in technological development in many fields and disciplines, which in turn fueled the innovative and creative minds of the period—particularly with regard to art and architecture. One must also take into account that this period includes the beginnings of printing, as well as various new political philosophies that had a wide-ranging impact on all aspects of society and architectural creation. Furthermore, the art and architecture of this period reflected a form of aesthetics directly related to the growth of larger cities, a more educated population, and a growing technology that allowed states to concentrate on growth and improvement (Skinner 69).

The European Renaissance began in Florence. It was not a sudden rebirth from the Dark Ages, but approximated more a refocusing—outward, politically and intellectually. Europe had become more than a series of small principalities vying for hegemony. There were larger cities, a more educated population, and a growing technology that allowed states to concentrate on growth and improvement. Italian cities were freed from feudalism, and were more mercantile and less hinged around a monarch (Skinner 69). On a cultural level, the Renaissance signaled a rebirth of learning and educational reform. People returned to classical works and revised their position on Christianity. The Reformation, in particular, helped demonstrate the fact that there were alternative perspectives and views on traditional subjects (Brooks), contributing to the spirit of revision and improvement that characterized the Renaissance. There was a rise in realism among artists, who used light and perspective in a more natural way. Philosophers such as Machiavelli portrayed political life realistically rather than idealistically. The change in mindset affected the political structure and management of the European people.

It was a three-centuries-long cultural, social, and political movement—a revolutionary period for art, architecture, and literature (Leonardo da Vinci). The architecture constructed during this time reflected a sense of aesthetics directly affected by the fact that many of the designers were themselves visual artists. Master builders such as Michelangelo and Bramante were able to imbue their architectural constructs with a degree of artistry that adhered to the simple, classical taste that was popular during this time. The incorporation of frescoes and paint throughout many buildings—in particular Michelangelo's rendering of scenes from Genesis and the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel—contributed to the spirit of multi-faceted reform in scholarship, art, and pragmatic affairs that the Renaissance ultimately served to represent.

The Renaissance continued the medieval rediscovery of the Roman and Greek traditions. It advanced technologies that changed the way populations congregated so that the urbanizing trend continued and increased. In art, realism prospered. The move toward capitalism and away from feudalism made further progress. Europe expanded through colonization and trade. The Italian city-states thrived. In all these qualities, the Renaissance gradually evolved from and moved along the same trajectory as the earlier medieval period (Starn 122–4). Architects made a point of utilizing principles of structural engineering and design that were ubiquitous throughout antiquity—one of the most efficacious means of doing so was produced by the renewed interest in Vitruvius's De Architectura, which elucidated a number of design principles and methods utilized by some of the most famous builders of the Renaissance. More importantly, this book was one of many factors that contributed to a general revival of scholarship and the dissemination of knowledge that had previously stagnated during the Middle Ages.

Much of the debate regarding the Renaissance swirls around whether it was an improvement over Medieval European culture. The cultural legacy of the Renaissance was to expand the European worldview. Map maker Amerigo Vespucci was one of the first Europeans to see the American coasts; his resulting cartography led to the christening of these new lands. Vespucci embarked on several international voyages between 1490 and 1500 (O'Gorman 106). The result of such exploration was the flourishing of international trade, of which Renaissance Italy was one of the principal centers. In economic terms, although mercantilist principles were still dominant during this epoch, the emphasis on international trade would eventually pave the way for the global economic system currently in place. Despite such tangible markers of progress, there were still undesirable aspects of this era in the form of warfare, political persecution, and disease. The notions of politics advanced by Machiavelli and others called for a treachery and duplicity (Sennholz) that resulted in some of these unfortunate occurrences. Still, most of the artists and writers within the culture fully believed their era was completely new and different from anything that had gone before (Woods and Elmer). Figures such as Leonardo da Vinci paved the way for modernity (Osborne). Perhaps the most enduring legacy that the Renaissance left for posterity is its tradition of artistic excellence and multi-disciplinary focus, which has helped to inspire the term "Renaissance Man" and the etymology for the word polymath (Harper).

The single greatest achievement of the Renaissance period could be said to be not a discovery or a theory, but the scientific method (Brotton). This methodology emphasized observable empirical evidence as the way toward discovering and understanding natural laws and true causes. The use of the scientific method advanced biology, astronomy, and physics during the Renaissance. For example, dissection and a mechanistic view of anatomy gained popularity with Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica. Many of the Renaissance discoveries remain basic to today's knowledge and were based, in part, on the rediscovery and rapid dissemination of classical Latin and Greek texts thanks to the invention and accessibility of the printing press. This process of reviving classical knowledge was also attributed to the fall of Byzantium, the Eastern branch of the Roman Empire, which fell midway through the 15th century. This occurrence caused a number of learned men to return to Italy, bringing back knowledge of texts that proved influential to the scientific method later fostered during the Renaissance. Texts by authors such as Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder aided in conceptions of geography and astronomy, particularly Ptolemy's Almagest.

Although a religious perspective still held sway during the Renaissance, as seen in its artwork, many Renaissance theologians were influenced by the rising tide of humanism. Humanists expanded the study of texts to incorporate Greek, reading them in the original languages. This led to a more precise understanding of Greek philosophy. Renaissance humanism significantly shaped the intellectual landscape through the humanities—disciplines such as moral philosophy, history, and rhetoric. While the humanist movement helped to facilitate the research and fostering of these fields, it may have detracted from more serious scholarship in conventional scientific endeavors such as mathematics and physics. Despite humanism's proclivity for revering aspects of animism and an innate spiritual force produced by nature itself, it is significant that this branch of science and philosophy merged with Christianity in a fruitful and harmonious union. Pope Pius II was an example of this unity in which the teachings of humanism and Christianity were reconciled (Löffler 538–42).

A number of specific scientific advancements took place during the Renaissance. In the mid-15th century, mathematician Georg Purbach (1423–1461) began a series of lectures on astronomy at the University of Vienna. Purbach also researched and incorporated principles of astronomy from the medieval Islamic scientist Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040). Regiomontanus (1436–1476), then one of Purbach's students, collected his notes on the lectures and later published them as Theoricae novae planetarum in the 1470s. This "New Theorica" replaced the older theorica as the textbook of advanced astronomy. Purbach also began to prepare a summary and commentary on the Almagest, a classical text by Roman scientist Claudius Ptolemy (90–168). The Almagest was translated into Latin in the 15th century and was widely read in manuscript and went through many print editions. Purbach died after completing only six books; however, Regiomontanus continued the task, consulting a Greek manuscript brought from Constantinople by Cardinal Bessarion. When it was published in 1496, the Epitome of the Almagest made the highest levels of Ptolemaic astronomy widely accessible to many European astronomers for the first time (Shank).

The major event in Renaissance science is the work of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543). He was among the first generation of astronomers to be trained with the Theoricae novae and the Epitome. The most influential of his works was undoubtedly the publication of De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium in 1543, shortly before his death the same year. He had begun formulating its theories by at least 1514 (Gingerich 32). This revolutionary text was one of the first to present a heliocentric view of the universe, while basing its findings on scientific calculations that adhered to many of the principles propagated by Ptolemy—who posited the notion that the earth was the center of the universe (Lawson 29). A comparison of his work with the Almagest shows that Copernicus was in many ways a Renaissance scientist rather than a revolutionary, because he followed Ptolemy's methods and even his order of presentation. Copernicus's efforts provided a fertile ground for the contributions of Galileo Galilei, and it can be said that Renaissance science effectively ended with the truly novel work of Galileo (32).

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an influential mathematical scientist. In his book Il Saggiatore (1623), he validates experimental empiricism. He writes: "philosophy [i.e., physics] is written in this grand book—I mean the universe—which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth" (237–8).

Galileo promoted knowledge for knowledge's sake and discovered, contrary to Catholic teaching, that the Earth was not the center of the universe. This finding revolutionized astronomy, although he was persecuted for it (Singer 217). Galileo used experiments as a research tool to verify truths rather than following the Aristotelian practice of demonstrating science from first principles. He gave mathematical demonstrations of his arguments. As mathematics did not readily lead to the discovery of causes—Aristotelian science's main concern—its usefulness was not immediately obvious (Feldhay 80–133). He conveyed his experimental results primarily in supplementary Italian dialogues on the theory of motion. Charles Van Doren has concluded that the Copernican Revolution is actually the Galilean Revolution because of the scale of change introduced by Galileo's work. The Renaissance revitalized science, religion, and art, and many of its theories and discoveries have endured to the present day.

The economic environment fostered by the Renaissance was primarily based upon commerce. Political authority in Italy was largely decentralized, with individual kingdoms based on municipalities—some of the most noted of which include Florence and Venice. Not coincidentally, these areas were largely governed by an economically elite commercial class of merchants who were able to exercise political influence due to their pecuniary prowess. International merchants came from all over to purchase, exchange, and sell goods in Italian municipalities.

With the merchant class largely dictating the economic environment, one of the most significant aspects of this feature was that the feudal system—dominant throughout Europe in the Middle Ages—was replaced by commerce. As such, there was a significant wealthy class of guild members and artisans who benefited from this form of economics and who also held political power. Even in rural areas, there was a marked absence of the conventional feudal system, as the vast majority of peasants (who represented the bulk of the population) (Burke 256) worked on the land of smaller farmers. Like traditional feudal systems, however, the majority of Italian peasants during this epoch remained poor.

The Medici family had a definite impact and influence on the state of economics during the Renaissance. It was during this time period that the clan rose to international prominence and was considered one of the richest families throughout the continent (de Roover 5). The family was based in Florence, where its famous Medici bank was located, although there were branches throughout various parts of Italy. Due to their enormous accumulation of wealth—encompassing not just monetary goods but also land and other valuables—the family is largely considered one of the impetuses of the Renaissance due to its patronage and economic power. Three Medici family members were made popes during the Renaissance, and a fourth, Leo XI, ascended to the papacy at its conclusion in 1605 (Medici Family). The family's bank is considered the first such institution to produce a more dependable system of tracing debits and credits—the double-entry system—which made it significantly easier to keep ledgers and prevent disputes.

The concept of mercantilism is directly related to that of nationalism. Mercantilist theory contends that it is most economically beneficial for a particular nation to create a favorable balance of trade. Mercantilist principles reached their peak during the early stages of imperialism throughout Europe—specifically from the 16th to the 18th centuries (LaHaye). This philosophy contradicts economic theories of a global economy, which is based on interdependence. Mercantilist principles actually pit countries against one another in many respects, including those pertaining to the obtaining of resources and additional forms of power. This economic theory was believed to have started in England, which produced a great deal of literature on this subject in the early 1700s (Magnusson 46).

One of the founding principles that heavily contributed to the popularity of mercantilism was the conception that the two principal forms of economic hegemony came in the form of gold or money. Land was also considered a means of pecuniary resources—which is why the rise of mercantilism and nationalism strongly coincided with the initial imperialist appetites of Europe that began in earnest with Columbus's 1492 voyage to the New World—but it was considered secondary to the aforementioned sources.

Another event that significantly affected the economic environment during the Renaissance was the discovery of the New World, the ensuing imperialism it fostered, and the slow, inexorable process of shifting economic principles from mercantilist nationalism toward the eventual global economic system. This latter tendency was initially evidenced with the so-called triangle trade involving the settlement of North America and the islands off its shores, which sent raw materials for finished products in Europe and which depended on Africa for slaves as a source of labor. Columbus's initial voyage actually sprang from his attempts to discover a trade route to Asia. The renewed interest in international commerce that the accidental discovery of the Americas produced only helped to further extend the economic value that the trading, purchasing, and selling of goods brought to Western economies. There were a number of convoys that helped to expand the economic viability of international trade, such as the first Netherlands voyage to Southeast Asia in 1595 (Donkin 169).

The invention of modern printing by Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468) was an inestimable moment for the Renaissance and all subsequent human history. His mechanized process of movable type allowed books to be mass produced. This invention laid the foundation for a modern knowledge-based economy (Eisenstein). It accelerated the accessibility of learning within society and had an immediate impact on education, communication, and the organization of information. The rapid dissemination of knowledge that this invention allowed for enabled a more expedient transmission of ideas and concepts that would inevitably help shape the field of management. In general, the printing press helped to produce a democratization of knowledge (Rheingold) that helped the common person to better communicate and transmit notions. Formal academic scholarship had previously been limited to priesthoods and members of the occult. The invention of the printing press was one of the first fledgling steps toward imbuing an academic approach to the handling of resources and the dealing with people that ancient management was based on, if for no other reason than it allowed for the documentation of management projects in a form in which the results could be studied and improved upon.

In political theory, Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) simultaneously revived the idea of republican government and proposed a new way of viewing political leadership. His concept of virtue in The Prince (1513) reversed traditional moral values by placing self-interest and political power at its core. His realistic theory urged rulers to act without conventional moral constraint if acting in accordance with Western morals would lead to the downfall of the state. Rather, they should use arms, deceit, or any other expedient means to acquire and maintain their authority, but without neglecting to present an image of traditional virtue. This did not entail the mistreatment of constituents, for the prince must above all avoid being hated by the populace. Equally, Machiavelli believed that being feared was politically safer than being loved. He justified rule by force rather than by law, or at least thought that law was worthless without backing by force (Anglo). He asserted that the prince must dedicate himself wholly to the discipline of war. From the management perspective, The Prince was a book about social cohesiveness, power, and leadership in organizations (George). It has been an influential theory of management style and effectiveness since its publication. However, the author's questionable morality rendered this book undeniably controversial (Bireley 14).

The Protestant Reformation, which followed closely on the Renaissance, was also important for management ideas. In his book The History of Management Thought, Daniel Wren points out that the Protestant work ethic, a sociological concept developed by Max Weber, had a significant influence on the historical development of modern management (25–8). This refers to the Calvinist stress on hard work as a route to salvation. Work was an individual and social duty, just as worldly success was the outward sign of personal salvation. The Protestant reformers effectively transferred the notion of good works into the obligation of hard work to prove that a person had received divine grace (Weber 9–12). In economic terms this meant that work was not evil when done in the service of God. This moral style gave work an intrinsic and positive value, inverting the notion of work as a necessary evil. It led directly, according to Weber, into capitalism, since it allowed people to endorse the idea that hard work paid dividends in wealth without contradicting spirituality. Moreover, this attitude toward work helped to galvanize laborers and provide a degree of motivation that benefited management. Management techniques during this time frame were able to focus beyond the relatively simple notions of rewards and punishments, allowing management to focus on the most prudent application of labor and human resources.

One of the primary tenets of effective management is the prudent usage of time. This concept was widely known to have originated throughout the Western world with the fundamental changes and beliefs that John Calvin (1509–1564) introduced to Geneva when he arrived in 1541 (Pozzy). As the forefather of Calvinism—one of the most austere scions produced by the Reformation—Calvin introduced highly strict notions of personal and communal accountability that largely began with the idea of time. Based on the premise that the omniscient Christian God is constantly observing the actions of those of his faith, Calvin demanded that his followers account for all of their waking moments by observing a rigid punctuality in all public and religious phases of life. From a managerial perspective, there were several benefits that Calvin's preoccupation with temporal matters provided. He reinforced strict adherence to scheduling by providing a new industry in Geneva based on the production of clocks and watches. Additionally, he set the standard for punctuality that would come to characterize formal labor shortly thereafter.

Besides the Protestant work ethic, reductionism and individualism took hold during this time. These were the precursors of modern management. Reductionism entails, first, removing unnecessary elements of a process and, second, reducing it to its smallest tasks in order to grasp how the process works. Individualism assumes that humans are independent agents with the ability to manage risks and come up with ideas. According to Patrick Weaver, these three major ideas—reductionism, individualism, and the Protestant work ethic—were incorporated into 17th-century scientific Newtonianism and 18th-century liberalism and capitalism (Weaver 2). Thus they had an impact on both the Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. In addition, Weaver argues in his important research paper, "The Origins of Modern Project Management," that Frederick Taylor's classic school of Scientific Management is rooted in this same philosophical tradition. Liberalism was one of the first philosophies that sought to divide labor among those most appropriate for it—one of the central tenets of capitalism as championed by Adam Smith. In such a manner were the end result of a project and the collective good placed before that of the many individuals involved. This sense of collective achievement is one of the most fundamental goals of project management.

In the Renaissance, the ideas of regularity, symmetry, and harmony were reintroduced as classical ideals. Milo argues that Renaissance builders believed these principles could be actualized and "seamlessly applied to architecture" by a scientific mastery of geometry (Milo). This shows how much construction was inspired by classicism and mathematics. One of the prime contributing factors to the revival of classical architecture was the revival of classical learning and knowledge that had been widely avoided—if not outright lost—during the Middle Ages. Architectural principles and designs fashioned on classical precepts—such as the notion that the appearance of a construct should reflect its purpose (Banister 88)—mirrored the attempt to reincorporate and further the scholarship of ancient Rome and Greece.

As in other eras of Western architecture, the most notable structures of the Renaissance were cathedrals, churches, and chapels. Their architects were extravagant, but did not depart from their classical roots. Renaissance construction projects imitate Greco-Roman building (Betts 5–25), as demonstrated by their incorporation of columns, domes, and arches. The builders sought to apply classical principles of design and proportion in numerous Christian structures (Ackerman 3–11). Greco-Roman forms were employed in Renaissance palaces as well, especially in Florence and Rome, and in the beautiful street façades of many cities (Partridge). It is perhaps this extensive borrowing from the Greek and Roman styles that most marks out the Renaissance.

The architectural principles evinced during the Renaissance involved a great deal of symmetry, particularly for the façades and plans of many buildings. The majority of construction was either for ecclesiastical or domestic purposes. In the former, the structuring of the façades shows a natural progression from the outside and exterior of a building to its center, as denoted by the spacing and placement of windows and columns. Many of the churches built during this epoch incorporated façades placed beneath a pediment containing a variety of structures that might include entablatures and pilasters. Many of these characteristics can be found in Gambarelli and Rossellino's Cathedral of Pienza (van der Ploeg 38), completed in 1462. The plans of most Renaissance churches were usually box-like and included modular proportions. Prior to the work of Brunelleschi, façades were not fully integrated with the plans for most temples. The idea for doing so, realized by Alberti in his efforts on Mantua's St. Andrea—which would not be fully completed until the 18th century (Borsi 29)—is usually attributed to Brunelleschi.

Brunelleschi's influence in Renaissance architecture extended beyond ideas for plans and façades and included innovations found in the types of columns used as supports and for aesthetic purposes. The typical order for Roman columns was, in sequence, Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite—known as the five orders, popularized by Renaissance architects such as Giacomo da Vignola and Andrea Palladio. Brunelleschi was one of the first to incorporate pilasters in an integrated system of columns. The Old Sacristy, which he finished in 1440 and which would eventually merge as part of the structure for San Lorenzo (Battisti 156), was the first edifice to earn this distinction. Alberti produced a pioneering influence in the use of arches during Renaissance construction. The master builder used a number of fairly large arches in his erection of Mantua's St. Andrea, purposed primarily to provide support for piers or larger arcades.

One of the architectural techniques that came to distinctly characterize the architecture of the Renaissance was the penchant for completing buildings—both religious and secular—with domes. Domes primarily provided an alternate means of roofing that helped to distinguish buildings of note from those of lesser acclaim. This architectural tendency became highly popular following Brunelleschi's work on the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore, which was one of the first structures to utilize this feature to widespread acclaim. Brunelleschi earned the honor of working on the dome after winning a structural design competition (Zucconi 147). St. Peter's Basilica, completed in 1506, also helped to garner both critical and industrial acclaim within the field of architecture for this feature. The former structure is arguably one of the most renowned works of architecture erected during the Renaissance (Fletcher 719). Its dome, eventually redesigned by Michelangelo midway through the 16th century, measures approximately 450 feet in height and is one of the tallest in the world.

There are several characteristics of Renaissance architecture that are decidedly at variance with the principles of architecture utilized within the preceding Middle Ages. During medieval times, roofs were frequently left open, conceivably to emphasize depth perception of space. Yet roofs were significantly more important during Renaissance construction, as they were usually decorated and added to the aesthetic sense that a structure was imbued with. Michelangelo's frescoes adorning the Sistine Chapel provide some of the most dramatic examples of this fact. As was typical of most construction prior to the Industrial Revolution, the exterior walls of Renaissance architecture were fitted with masonry, typically presented in straight courses, whereas internal walls were typically painted with white chalk over a plaster finish. Frescoes were also sometimes painted over the walls as well as the ceilings. Rusticated quoins were frequently found on the floors and in the certain corners of the buildings, and details such as moldings and courses were elaborately planned throughout. Arches were fairly important for the structuring and placement of both doors and windows, each of which were frequently located within an arch or semicircular arch, commonly adorned with pediments or lintels.

There were a number of significant advancements made in construction technology during the Renaissance that allowed for the return to the classical style of construction that designers sought. In addition to the creation and employment of specific tools that aided in building purposes, Renaissance inventors and builders also made several improvements on previously existent techniques related to mining, forgery, and the general shaping of metallic tools. Other advancements in construction technology included the employment of double-shell domes—used most eminently in the Santa Maria del Fiore—and general principles of structural engineering. Individual construction tools that made a significant impact on the work achieved during this era include cranked reels and the cranked Archimedes screw (White Jr. 111), as well as carpentry braces. In terms of mining and metallurgy advancements, finery forges were utilized during the Renaissance to help transition pig iron into bar iron—an early precursor to wrought iron, a construction material of choice during the earliest stages of the Industrial Revolution.

Like most inventions and technological innovations, the formation of the double-shell dome was the by-product of necessity. It was initially innovated by Brunelleschi as a means of solving the problem of capping the Santa Maria del Fiore, which remained without a dome for the better part of 100 years due to its dimensions—considered too small for the structure. While di Cambio's original dome design collected dust in an aisle of the incomplete structure (Ross 10), Brunelleschi set about finishing what was to be the principal church in Florence. The conventional manner of supporting domes via flying buttresses was rejected due to its association with French architecture. Brunelleschi's dome was widely inspired by the dome that capped the Pantheon. He devised the structure of a double shell made of marble and sandstone to hold the dome, which he would construct out of a brick material considerably lighter than that of the supporting shell. The combined weight of the double dome exceeded 35,000 tons, and was positioned by the usage of lifting devices that the engineer specifically created for this project. The dome was 113 meters high and had a diameter of 44 meters (Harness). Brunelleschi mounted the weight of the octagonal dome on to its corners by employing a series of sandstone chains that applied pressure to the relevant points. These chains were supported by ribs placed on the eight corners of the dome, devised with slits so that there was no need for scaffolding. These ribs were also used to support the bricks that were arrayed in a herringbone pattern (Ross 97), so that the bricks would stay in place while the mortar was drying.

An impressive range of machinery was employed in Renaissance construction technology. Large construction machinery included the reversible hoist, a mobile crane on rollers with a hoist, a lifting device with pincers, a bell-lifting device with a counterweight, screw-operated lifting devices, and pile drivers (The Sienese Engineers). To power such devices, human and animal labor was used, sometimes in conjunction with plows, hoes, and steam power. The Renaissance builders understood how to employ hydraulic power and experimented with wind power as well. One prudent application of lifting tower technology was found in Domenico Fontana's relocation of Rome's Vatican Obelisk, estimated to have weighed over 350 tons (Lancaster 429). Even with this technology in use, lifting such objects required considerable concentration to evenly apply the force of the tower so that the ropes used for lifting would not break (436–437).

Construction technology became indelibly influenced by the introduction of the crank, which became fairly ubiquitous on the Continent in the early part of the 15th century. The crank proved instrumental in a number of devices; one of the earliest manifestations was its application as part of a carpenter's brace, in use prior to 1430 in northern areas of Europe. In Italy, works of art by both Pisanello and Taccola demonstrate cranks in action. Midway through the century, Francesco di Giorgio and Roberto Valturio refined the concept of cranks. Cranks also became fairly popular in weapons such as crossbows and aided in the textile industry. From the 16th century onwards, evidence of cranks and connecting rods integrated into machine design becomes abundant in the technological treatises of the period (Derry and Williams 180).

Although there were definite improvements in the discipline of structural engineering that took place during the Renaissance, the true precursor to the science of this field as it is known in modern times actually took place in the century after the Renaissance. Relevant factors include treatises by Isaac Newton, Robert Hooke, and Galileo, who produced Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences in 1638, which significantly impacted conceptions of structural engineering. Galileo has gone on to be regarded as the "originator of the mechanics of materials" (The Sienese Engineers). Some of the advancements that affected structural engineering during this epoch included the 16th-century writing of Vannoccio Biringuccio's Pirotechnia, which was principally focused on the varying aspects of metallurgy, and Georg Agricola's De Re Metallica. Additionally, some of the greatest works of the Renaissance are directly attributable to the structural engineering genius of both Brunelleschi and Leonardo da Vinci, who were able to accomplish much with arduous work and instinct despite lacking formal conceptions of calculus and beam theory.

During the Renaissance, there were competing notions of what constituted a master builder. Alberti represented the separatist view. He desired a complete separation between design and building. In fact, he wrote a book, De Re Aedificatoria, in which he describes his own design process and distinguished it from the builder's role (Loulakis 47). Thus, Alberti was the founder of a line of architects who sought to make architectural design distinct from engineering as a science and building as a craft. Brunelleschi, by contrast, was an integrationist. He believed that the structural designer should also be the manager of construction. This view is closer to the traditional role of the master builder who was involved in the management of trade contractors and was not merely the draughtsman behind the building design. Brunelleschi got his hands dirty, while Alberti stayed aloof. Those who followed Brunelleschi's model were viewed as part of the master builder camp (Loulakis 47). They viewed buildings as working machines, whereas the separationists treated buildings more like static objects. Alberti's model stayed in the minority until the Industrial Revolution, when the balance shifted decisively toward independent architectural design separated from the implementation of the designer's vision.

Perhaps the most prominent example of a Renaissance master builder was the Florentine architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). Before he created the Renaissance architectural style, this man steeped himself in the structural system of classical architecture, trying to figure out how to transfer its principles into his own age. He was first a clock maker and sculptor. He won a competition to build the dome of Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi was greatly inspired by the republication of Vitruvius's De Architectura. His design was based on Roman structural solutions (Walker). The solution he devised was ingenious and ranks as the greatest structural achievement of the fifteenth century (Loulakis 46). He also invented numerous mechanical devices that transformed the way building was conducted. Leonardo da Vinci, among others, was fascinated by his new design and built an ox hoist that sped up the building process tremendously. Brunelleschi's first truly Renaissance work was the Foundling Hospital, built between 1419 and 1424 (Wittkower 257–291).

Similar to other architects who strove to revive the ideals and principles found within classical Roman architecture, Brunelleschi was substantially inspired by De Architectura, written by Vitruvius Pollio early in the first century B.C. (Harris). This manuscript was valued by Brunelleschi for demonstrating certain structures and providing information on how they were built—including edifices on both land and water—as well as containing information regarding technological developments and the machines used to construct such works. The manifold architectural benefits found within De Architectura include information regarding construction materials such as concrete, limestone, and masonry, as well as several significant machines including force pumps, surveying equipment, and dewatering machines. Other scientific concepts detailed within this book include notions of proportion, which helped to influence da Vinci in his famous Renaissance drawing, Vitruvian Man.

Brunelleschi's rival was Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), another good example of a Renaissance master builder who made operational changes in the field of procedure. He was the first true predecessor of today's architects. Alberti claimed that he could direct master craftsmen without being directly involved in construction, simply by providing highly specified creative designs and models. He gave the plans of his buildings but frequently did not become involved in the actual construction project. He simply handed his sketches and models over to the compomastro, who transferred them to the worksite where another master builder would implement them. According to Jackson, "his new philosophy was the first that would result in the separation of design and construction as completely different concepts" (Jackson 7). This new technique was exemplified in Alberti's façade for Florence's Santa Maria Novella—the first known project for which the designer was not the builder.

Alberti's De Re Aedificatoria was inspired by Vitruvius's De Architectura in a number of different facets. Like his Roman predecessor, Alberti attempted to denote architectural concepts and principles in a manner that was decidedly academic and worthy of scholarship as any other formal discipline. He finished all ten books of this manuscript around 1452, earning the distinction of producing the first book on this topic by a Renaissance author. With references to learned men such as Vitruvius, Aristotle, and Plato, the ten books take up a variety of topics including materials, restoration, ornamentation, lineaments, and general notions of construction. This manuscript is regarded as the first book about architecture to be printed using movable type (Art and Architecture).

Both Bramante and Michelangelo were true Renaissance figures in the sense that they displayed a versatility of talents that extended across disciplines. In addition to lending their expertise to the field of architecture, they were both accomplished artists working in a variety of media including painting, sketching, and sculpting. In terms of architecture, the pair are probably most noted for their work on St. Peter's Basilica, which Bramante designed and Michelangelo helped to finish by making improvements on the plan in the western portion of the building. Bramante is credited with delivering the High Renaissance style of architecture to different parts of Rome (Bruschi), whereas Michelangelo is one of the forerunners of the Mannerist style of architecture. Michelangelo is probably best known for the frescoes he created on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel—which he accomplished nearly single-handedly (Robertson 91)—as well as other works of art including the Statue of David.

Yet another architect inspired by Vitruvius's De Architectura was Palladio, who also drew inspiration from Alberti and attempted to create structures with mathematical simplicity (Copplestone 250). Although Palladio innovated his own type of design—known as Palladian architecture—many of the principles that he based his theories on were founded in the simple classical architecture of Roman times. The Four Books of Architecture, which initially appeared in 1570, provides a good deal of insight into Palladio's concepts of both design and construction, which are treated in the manuscript as separate processes. The contents of the book provide definite guidelines for both components and directives for creating different types of structures. These guidelines directly contributed to the popularity of Palladian architecture, which actually extended beyond the two centuries of the Renaissance and was still evident in the latter portion of the 18th century. The 1790 erection of Castel Coole in Ireland was one of the final structures built in "the Palladian traditions" (Jackson-Stops 106).

The Dome of Florence Cathedral (A.D. 1420–36) has been described as a "miracle" of design, which is in essence a blend of Renaissance and Gothic architectural building aspects. The dome itself covers an octagonal apartment which is 42 metres in diameter, and is raised on an unbuttressed octagonal drum, with circular windows to light the interior. It is 52 metres from the ground level, is pointed in form, and consists of an inner and outer shell (Italian Renaissance).

The original designer of the building was Arnolfo di Cambio. The foundation stone was laid in A.D. 1296 on the site of the Basilica of Santa Reparata. After di Cambio's death in 1302, building work stopped for fifty years. Under Talenti it resumed and the original design of the choir end was augmented. In 1347, a Genoese fleet returned carrying the plague, which decimated Florence. In 1355 only the façade and the nave walls were built. Building resumed in 1366 after the city recovered and the nave was vaulted and the east end planned. There was a competition at this time between Giovanni di Lapo Ghini and Neri di Fioravanti for the dome design, presided over by the consuls of the wool guild who controlled the building. Out of this competition, in 1367, a thirty-foot stone model was built by a commission of master builders. In 1415, Giovanni d'Ambrogio built the massive drum. Still no one knew how to execute the high and wide dome that was planned. The architect who became renowned for the construction of the dome was Filippo Brunelleschi, who received the commission to plan and build the dome after winning a design competition in 1418. Work on the dome began on 7 August 1420 and was completed on 30 August 1436 (Filippo Brunelleschi).

What was unique about the construction of the dome was that Brunelleschi was not trained as a carpenter or mason but was in fact a goldsmith and clock maker. Even more amazing, states Gärtner, was how he proposed to build the dome: "the incredible feature of his proposed solution was that he intended to build the dome senza armadura, without scaffolding" (86). The technique for doing this was almost inconceivable at the time. Others had proposed wooden scaffolding or stone towers to support the work, and nor could Brunelleschi prove by pointing to previous experience that he could accomplish this feat.

It was largely Brunelleschi's knowledge of Roman construction principles that permitted him to solve the unique engineering and architectural problem that the dome presented. In the first instance there was the problem of the space that had to be spanned, which was too wide to permit traditional wood centering as part of the construction. Buttressed walls were not possible to support the dome (440). As Gardner states, Brunelleschi "not only discarded traditional building methods and devised new ones but also invented much of the machinery for the job" (440). He designed the dome around a pointed arch—or ogival—which is more stable in that it reduced any outward thrust that the dome might present at its base. The weight of the dome was also minimized by the design of a thin double shell around a skeleton of 24 ribs. This was the first time in architectural and construction history that a design of this nature had been achieved. He also anchored the structure at the top with a heavy lantern, built after his death but from his design (440). According to Gärtner, there was no precedent for this type of structure (88). The system of struts supporting the cupola was thus transformed into a self-supporting skeleton of ribs, which definitively ended the medieval period of architecture and gave birth to the "monumental" form of modern architecture. As Gärtner states, "there can be no doubt that the Renaissance begins with his buildings" (11).

The task of construction is highlighted by the fact that the dome weighs an impressive 37,000 tons and more than four million bricks were used. Both the inner and outer layers of the dome are supported by "24 stone half arches, or ribs, of circular form, 2.1 metres thick at the base and tapering to 1.5 metres, which meet at an open stone compression ring at the top. In order to prevent or reduce the outward thrust, tie rings of stone held together with metal cramps were situated between the ribs, also supported by tie rings of oak timbers joined by metal connectors. Furthermore, the entire structure was built without formwork, the circular profiles of the ribs and rings being maintained by a system of measuring wires fixed at the centres of curvature" (King). This means that Brunelleschi understood the intricacies and complexities of structural construction in realizing that if the dome was built in horizontal layers, it would always be stable and not require timber centering.

Brunelleschi also designed unique wooden machines to move the required building materials both vertically and horizontally. He used herringbone masonry by which stones were laid sloping inwards, not horizontally. The building procedure went in rings, with a new ring started only once the last ring had been completed. Without scaffolding, there were eight teams of masons. For safety, Brunelleschi built a balcony inside the vault, workers wore leather safety harnesses, and they were not allowed to swing in or to carry tools up in hoisting tubs. The result was an incredible safety record, with only three recorded deaths during the project. He also designed a new kind of ox-driven hoist with a reversible gear that could raise heavy loads using less power and greater speed than previously; one or two oxen were able to raise loads that before had taken as many as six pairs (King 67). In addition, for lateral positioning of material Brunelleschi built a new kind of crane that operated once the stone reached the upper working level—innovations that contributed greatly to the future of engineering (King 59).

The significance of the building of the dome also relates to the changed and more professional status of the architect in society. Brunelleschi's innovative design and division of labor challenged the tradition of the medieval master builders who were previously in charge of design and construction. As Castex states, "This manner of thinking through the project as a whole and determining every aspect of its structure, construction, and aesthetics was very different from the traditional ways of the masons and was to some extent the birth of the modern architectural profession" (52). In a very real sense, Brunelleschi's construction of the Dome of Florence Cathedral was the beginning of Renaissance architecture in terms of both structural design and its execution using new technologies. It influenced architecture inestimably and was taken up at St. Peter's Basilica (1506–1626) and in many American capitol buildings.

In 1456, Giovanni Rucellai and his family commissioned Leon Battista Alberti to design and execute a new façade for the unfinished exterior of the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella. The background to this church begins in 1219 when a number of Dominican friars led by Fra Giovanni da Salerno came from Bologna and obtained the church of Santa Maria delle Vigne as their Florentine dwelling. The building of the much larger church which is evident today was begun in 1279. The original church on the site dated from the ninth century A.D. and was enlarged in A.D. 1094. The original façade was begun near the beginning of the fourteenth century but left incomplete around A.D. 1350. The Papal court resided in Santa Maria Novella in the period between A.D. 1434 and 1443—just before Alberti was commissioned to design the new façade. Between 1458 and 1470, Alberti designed the magnificent central portal and the upper part of the façade, admirably harmonizing the pre-existent Gothic elements with the new Renaissance style (Orlandi 4). Among the design aspects attributed to Alberti was the hiding of the sloping roofs of the aisles with two upturned volutes, which was the first example of this architectural motif.

In terms of architectural style, the façade is based on the triumphal arch, thus showing a Greco-Roman influence. Its architectural elements comprise a temple-like pedimented upper story with triangular panels and scrolls on a broad base. Disciplined classical shapes with Florentine ornamentation are fitted into a medieval structure. The proportions of the façade were widened with thick end pillars of banded white and green marble, paired with Corinthian columns matching the portal frame. The portal was remodeled to make it reminiscent of the Pantheon with its fluted pilaster door frame and coffered entrance vault with rosettes. The central problem that Alberti faced in designing this façade was that the design had to accommodate wall tombs already built into the lower façade while constructing a modern façade still in keeping with the 13th-century Gothic structure. Another design and construction problem was that the two levels of the church were of different heights. Alberti solved this by tying them together visually with the use of ornate scrolls on opposite ends (The Façade).

Tavernor explains how the building was built without supervision from Alberti, stating that a wooden model was built of the façade, which provided the masons on site with details of Alberti's designs well into the future (99). Apparently, Alberti was able to provide design models to the work site but was not present for the actual building of the façade, representing a significant change in building methods. This façade is renowned for its highly stylized architectural beauty, and is considered "a perfect example of the harmony found in the arts in the early Italian Renaissance." Above all, the central significance of this façade is its integration of the already existing medieval elements "by developing them along a classical design" (The Façade of S. Maria Novella).

The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican, commonly known as Saint Peter's Basilica, is a Late Renaissance church located within Vatican City and has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world. Banister Fletcher, the renowned architectural historian, refers to it as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom" (719). The symbolism and importance of this building relates to the burial site of Saint Peter, the chief apostle, who was buried in A.D. 64 (St. Peter's Basilica). By the 15th century the original basilica was in poor repair, prompting Pope Nicolas V to initiate the restoration and enlargement of the church. Pope Julius II laid the first stone of the new basilica in 1506.

It is important to note at the outset that St. Peter's Basilica is the end product of the labors of many architects and builders. As Bonde, Mark, and Robison write, "The first proposal to replace the old basilica came in the 1450s during the pontificate of Nicholas V" (129). The building took almost the entire sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century to complete. The motivation behind the construction can be traced to the desire of Pope Sixtus V for a new symbol to magnetize the Catholic world. The construction then became the task of Pope Julius, who employed the architect Donato Bramante (1444–1514). Bramante's plan for the structure was a Greek cross superimposed on a square with a central hemispherical dome supported on four massive piers. He experimented with Roman concrete for the piers and arches (Nuttgens 184).

Pope Julius's desire to create the most important building in Christendom led to a competition, and it was the design of Donato Bramante that was selected. Bramante's design was based on the image of a Greek cross, featuring a large central dome surrounded by smaller domes, intended to symbolize divine perfection. The most significant architect to complete the building was Michelangelo, who was appointed chief architect in 1547 and remained in this role until his death. He retained the Greek cross and the central dome from Bramante's original design but made his design more compact and unified the isolated parts into a perfectly connected whole. Central to his design was the dome—designed as two shells, intended to be higher and lighter than the dome proposed by Bramante. When Michelangelo died the building was largely complete; however, the dome above the cylindrical drum was subsequently completed by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana in 1587–90 (Steiger). The interior, which includes 45 altars, was decorated by a number of famous artists, including Michelangelo's Pietà and the papal altar by Bernini. The construction from inception to its final completion took a total of 176 years, from 1450 to 1626 A.D. (Basilica of St. Peter).

Among the many innovations that took place in the construction process was the introduction of movable scaffolding for centering the arches. Bramante was recognized for his management of the large workforce employed in the construction, and he revived a concrete mixture for the friezes and cornices previously used by Roman builders. James Lees-Milne describes Saint Peter's Basilica as "a church with a unique position in the Christian world" (12). Its religious significance also includes the fact that it is an important place of pilgrimage with many historical associations, and it remains one of the enduring legacies of Renaissance architectural genius.

History of the Scientific Revolution

Villa Almerico, or Villa Capra, also known as The Rotonda, was begun in 1550. This Renaissance villa outside Vicenza was designed by Andrea Palladio and is renowned as a classic of the Pantheonic type, with its symmetrical quartet design (Villa Almerico). The inspiration for the building arose when a priest named Paolo Almerico decided to build a retirement house in Vicenza in 1565. Palladio designed the villa after drawing inspiration from the Pantheon. The design emphasized symmetry, accomplished by having a square plan which contained four façades, each with a projecting portico.

Unlike many of Palladio's other villas, this villa was designed for a suburban rather than a rural environment. Palladio ensured that all the rooms were designed with mathematical precision according to his rules of architecture, which were published in the Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (Card). The significance of the design relates to the humanist values that were central to Renaissance architecture. Palladio strongly emphasizes the humanist qualities of reason and rationality in his architectural designs. "It was this expansion and reinvention of tradition that makes Palladio one of, if not the, most beloved of Renaissance architects" (Giovannini).

The actual building began in 1566, with the rough works ending in about 1571, and the villa was already inhabitable by 1569. It was in fact completed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, who succeeded Palladio as architect after 1580. One of the changes that Scamozzi made to the building was the modification of the two-storey center hall; Palladio's design had the building covered by a high semicircular dome, but Scamozzi replaced this with an oculus, and the dome was ultimately completed with a cupola (Villa Capra). Palladio is often described as the most influential and most copied architect in the Western world, and his designs still influence contemporary architects. His treatise was published in an English translation in 1715, and the impact of his work can be seen in the late 18th and early 19th century American architecture, as seen in Thomas Jefferson's Monticello. "In the first half of the 17th century Inigo Jones converted English architecture to the Italianate Renaissance by introducing Palladio's style, seen best in the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, London, and the Queen's House, Greenwich" (Venice's Palladian Architecture).

The period designated as the Scientific Revolution, which includes the 17th and 18th centuries, was characterized by the increasing prominence of reason and rational thought in all aspects of culture and intellectual life. This period of history saw the advent of many influential works on theory and philosophy, such as Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica, that promulgated the centrality of human reason in the advancement of the arts and sciences. This period of European history was also extremely important in terms of the way that the dominance of reason affected the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as in terms of the reaction to this dominance that occurred in the early and latter parts of the 20th century.

In essence, the Scientific Revolution was initiated by a series of scientific discoveries founded on various Renaissance ideals and knowledge. This was supported by a firm belief in reason as a conduit of knowledge and a sense of humanistic inquiry which involved a "scholarly and initially reactive enthusiasm for classic culture, accompanied by creative writing in Latin on classic lines" (Wilkins). Central to this period of history was the ideal of education and learning as well as the interrogation of the norms, values, and methods of the past. This was to lead to a more scientifically inclined and practical worldview that tended to deny the more religious perceptions of reality that had characterized the past.

In this light, the development and relevance of the Baroque style of design, composition, and construction takes precedence and will be examined in detail in the sections below. The Baroque style was in many ways a stark contrast to the more pristine aesthetic of the Renaissance. Whereas Renaissance art was characterized by very clean lines and a harsh geometric intentionality, the Baroque form was far more free-flowing and dynamic, and even ostentatious at times (Saisselin). Cognizance will also be taken of the central thinkers and philosophers of this period and their impact on the development of architectural and construction principles. The work of Descartes, who attempted to show that truth lay in rational decision making and in the rational investigation of the world around us, is of paramount importance in this regard. The work of Sir Francis Bacon, who is credited with the introduction of inductive reasoning, will also be a focus of analysis.

The Scientific Revolution in this study represents the period from the early 17th to the mid-18th centuries. It was a time at which new forms of logical reasoning flourished. Like the Renaissance before it, the period entailed a mindset. It was not just a less religious view of society and the human condition. Indeed, influential works such as Wilhelm Schickard's first calculating machines, Francis Bacon's New Atlantis, and Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica not only provided crucial new discoveries but situated their developments in contradistinction with the past (Westman and Lindberg).

The Scientific Revolution coincided with the Baroque. The term "Baroque" refers to an artistic and architectural style that arose in the late seventeenth century and lasted until the early eighteenth century. It is usually described in terms of its florid, dynamic movement, its overt emotion, and its secularism. However, the success of Baroque art resulted from its ties to Catholicism and its architectural use in churches. The Baroque was the Catholic response to Protestant simplicity. It produced architecture that was emotionally accessible and was a demonstration of the church's power and wealth. It also assumed a secular expression in grand palaces such as Mansart's Château de Maisons (1642) near Paris (Buci-Glucksmann).

Many define this period as the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment. In the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, learning focused on resolving rational contradictions between ideas and authors through debate. The Scientific Revolution led by a series of scientific discoveries on the basis of Renaissance knowledge and ideals, initiated a cultural emphasis on worldly inquiry and rational thought. This scientifically grounded methodology lies at the heart of the ideology behind the Enlightenment. The turn toward humanistic inquiry involved a "scholarly and initially reactive enthusiasm for classic culture, accompanied by creative writing in Latin on classic lines" (Wilkins).

As for the Baroque style, it is relatively easy to view a gradual evolution of art and architecture from the Renaissance to the Baroque. The Baroque style represented a stark contrast and an aesthetic response to the pristine, dramatic compositions of the Renaissance. Where Renaissance art evinced very clean lines and a harsh geometric intentionality, Baroque form was far more free-flowing and even ostentatious at times. After the more static rhythms of the Renaissance, the dynamism of Baroque artwork demonstrated that art could move (Saisselin).

The scientific revolution represented a fundamental alteration to the hegemonic governing orthodoxy. Its worldview allowed for far more risks in utilizing the past to propel forward toward the future. In fact, the scientific revolution laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution from the mid-eighteenth to the late nineteenth centuries (Friedell). The Baroque style is still seen in architecture from the previous century. In the arts, it established a basis for the modern era as a transition away from Medieval and Renaissance traditions (Buci-Glucksmann). Modern conceptions of the individual's relationship to and responsibility for the state are products of this age (Rolbiecki).

The Scientific Revolution was built on the foundation of all previous learning. It drew from the ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Medieval European and Islamic schools, and the Renaissance. It was based predominantly in the Aristotelian tradition, which provided the intellectual framework of the seventeenth century (Grant). What was crucial was that attitudes changed regarding science and technology. Scholars became more willing to question previously held truths. They rejected the prevailing scientific doctrines that had been transmitted from previous ages. Out of this attitude of questioning, new questions and answers to scientific problems could arise. Unprecedented advances in knowledge were made. Science was placed on a new footing (Butterfield).

A number of revolutionary ideas gained currency in the Scientific Revolution. One such idea was the heliocentric view of astronomy. The realization that the Sun, not the Earth, was the centre of the solar system had detrimental effects on religion, highlighting the fact that humans are not the center of everything. Another advance came when Antonie van Leeuwenhoek viewed bacteria under a microscope, greatly furthering knowledge of germs, bacteria, and life itself (Butterfield). The list of scientific and technological breakthroughs during this time is almost endless. Wilhelm Schickard created one of the first calculating machines in 1623. The barometer was invented around the same time by Evangelista Torricelli. Franciscus Vieta gave the world modern algebra, while John Napier created logarithms. Edmund Gunter invented logarithmic scales, which were later used by William Oughtred in 1622 to invent the slide rule. Blaise Pascal constructed mechanical calculators and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by studying fluids. The mathematician John Hadley built a Gregorian telescope with correctly shaped mirrors and the first parabolic Newtonian telescope (King 77).

Another major figure in the Scientific Revolution was Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626). He introduced inductive reasoning in his Novum Organum (1620). This thinking method involved gathering all available evidence and reaching conclusions using facts alone. Data must be collected using measurable and observable evidence. Bacon believed in rigorously testing hypotheses. The chief difference between Bacon's method of inquiry and those that had preceded him was that he firmly insisted on developing a conclusion out of the data that is collected, rather than forming the conclusion beforehand and shaping the data to fit one's predetermined conclusions. It was his inductive reasoning that became known as the scientific method and permitted the rapid acceleration of development in the Scientific Revolution.

The philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) developed the notion of deductive reasoning, in which a premise is proposed and evidence for or against it is rationally sifted, leaving the researcher only with supporting evidence. His famous credo Cogito, ergo sum—I think, therefore I am—exemplifies his empirical emphasis. Like Bacon, his desire was to put scientific thinking on a footing that was not deceived by the mind or the senses. Similar to Bacon, Descartes's legacy lies not only in science, but also in mathematics, philosophy, and rhetoric (Langer). Indeed, it is one of the great legacies of the Scientific Revolution that the leading thinkers of the time period made great developmental leaps in not only the data that they found but also the method of formulating and expressing their discoveries.

Robert Boyle was a British scientist who is commonly credited with laying the foundation for the invention of the steam engine. He developed Boyle's Law in the early 1660s, which states that the volume of a gas has an inverse relation with its pressure. Based on Boyle's Law, in 1679 an associate named Denis Papin built a bone digester—a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. In 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the world's first steam engine (Brown 20). Thomas Newcomen and James Watt improved the design later in the 18th century and developed the steam engine into an effective tool for locomotive and construction, which had a profound effect on the Industrial Revolution (Hunter and Bryant 42).

Perhaps of supreme importance was the work of Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727). His Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) laid the groundwork for most of classical mechanics, including universal gravitation and the three natural laws of motion. In the first law, Newton states that an object in motion will remain in motion unless an external force alters the course of its trajectory; the second law stipulates that an object's force is the result of the product of its mass and acceleration; the third law declares that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. He demonstrated the similarity between his theory of gravitation and Kepler's rules of the motion of the planets, proving that objects on Earth and celestial bodies are subject to the same natural laws. This eliminated any doubt as to heliocentrism. Newton favored Bacon's empirical method over Descartes' rationalism (Newton 974), though he did not go so far as to believe that any person or age could explain all of nature (Westfall 643). Newton's work became a model for other sciences, and the Scientific Revolution was an explosive time for scientific advancement whose achievements shaped human knowledge and technology decisively.

The period of the Scientific Revolution saw the continued expansion of colonial rule in many areas. The period served as the basis of globalization, in which Europeans not only sought to improve their standards but also continued to expand into many areas of trade. Areas of navigation including charts, maps, and other navigation matters showed much reform and modernization (Rautman 150). The publication of Isaac Newton's Principia served as a help for sailors, as it was the publication after which sailors could make different calculations such as the motion of the moon and other related objects. In 1670 latitude instruments were used to measure the size of the earth, and navigation was considered the main problem by the British Parliament in 1676; a prize was determined for the one who solved the issue in 1714.

By the advent of the 17th century, England was in an enviable economic position and possessed the requisite scientific knowledge to successfully traverse the globe in search of valuable spices and other commodities. It was the East India Company that was responsible for the birth of European commercial and economic success in the modern age (Chadhouri). The English East India Company was not alone in its accumulation of wealth and thriving trade industry. Indeed, there were trade companies operated by other European nations, most notably the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Dutch trade company began at the start of the 17th century and is actually considered the first company distinct from a company's governing body, with a global empire. The Dutch India Company was more powerful than its British counterpart, and there were over one hundred ships, thousands of employees, and literally dozens of settlements (Jacobs).

There are significant correlations between economic developments within the native landscapes of England and other European countries and colonization and accumulation of wealth. The Capitalist economy was developing and in order to thrive, countries had to find ways of trading with other countries and could not merely rely on their own indigenous resources. As Boswell states, "Colonization is considered a hierarchical alternative to market relations, increased when market relations perform poorly and slowed when the market expands" (Boswell 180). Ultimately, colonization represented an alternative for economies in places like England and the Netherlands that would have suffered otherwise.

Economic advancements started to occur as a result of discoveries such as scientific developments by Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton. Richard Cantillon (1680–1734) used Newton's law of inertia for the analysis and advancement of market competition and other economic factors (Fusfeld 21). John Locke (1632–1704) was one of the leading authors of his time, known for his corrections of Thomas Hobbes's theory and his efforts on social contract theory. Locke defined that people and the society were related in a way in which the rights of people were to be safeguarded by the society (Dunn). In Two Treatises of Government, he argued that all men have been created equal by God, and that men make things their own property through their labor and efforts (Dunn). Locke also pointed out the pricing of a product and the changes in it due to the alteration in the number of buyers and sellers—that when demand and supply change, price is also altered (Dunn).

During the Scientific Revolution, two fundamental ideas influenced how individuals viewed the world. First was the notion that the universe and everything within it functions according to the laws of nature. Nothing is random; all things work in an orderly and regular fashion. Second, reason became the strongest tool in the search for truth. People started to believe in the value of education, and the pre-existing deep adherence to religion and an agrarian way of life began to lose its hegemonic status. The management theory that derived from this worldview emphasized the ability to make choices, obedience to known laws, questioning the unknown, and adherence to moral standards.

The Leviathan, written in 1651, was an influential text written during a turbulent period of English history. Hobbes wrote the book while England was enraptured in a prolonged Civil War, and there is a profoundly pessimistic current toward humanity that runs throughout the book. The chief premise of the Leviathan is the belief that humans should surrender their autonomy when entering society and that left to their own devices, civil war will result. Hobbes does not believe that morality is an a priori construct. His view that individuals should relinquish their agency when entering society—submitting to a governing authority figure that operates in the best interests of the community as a whole—has been widely discussed. However, there is some confusion concerning Hobbes's attitude toward the authority figure, and he likely intends for the ruler to be censored to some degree by the people, who have the right to resist authority in some cases (Sreedhar). The "standard interpretation" sees Hobbes as "seeking to derive from fundamental human nature the social arrangements necessary for enduring social order" (Lloyd 24).

Being a prominent theorist of his time, John Locke is known for his thoughts and theories about political administration. According to his Two Treatises of Government, he believes that powers are to be separated in a system, and he gave developments and corrections to Thomas Hobbes and Niccolò Machiavelli. He related politics to bureaucracy and gave a liberal aspect of politics, differentiating legislative power and modern executive (Griffith 224–237). Locke was also one of the first truly influential thinkers in America, giving the newly formed American colonies an intellectual voice on par with the most revered thinkers in England. Because of his demonstration that unregulated political tyranny would not only provoke resentment from the public but would also result in the collapse of the government (Franklin), Locke is often situated as the antithesis of Hobbes. Unlike Hobbes, who felt that human nature was inherently self-serving, Locke felt that human nature was basically well-meaning. His philosophy is considerably more democratic, repeatedly emphasizing the importance of property as a natural right to mankind. To this end, his theories evince a complex blend between individualism and collective uniting that is perhaps the standard for modern society.

The abundance of wealth during the Scientific Revolution led to a flamboyant, elaborate, and extravagant artistic and architectural style—Baroque. Baroque architecture not only endeavored to showcase the virtuoso designs favored by the Catholic Church but also emphasized the wealth of the Church—a clear departure from the more understated Church-commissioned artworks of the Renaissance. The dynamic rhythms of Baroque architecture incorporated a number of the central characteristics of Baroque painting, in particular the use of shadow. Although Baroque architecture is generally ascribed to Italian architects, most notably Gianlorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini, it is important to note that principles of the Baroque style varied among the European countries.

Italian Baroque architecture is inextricably linked with the Catholic Church and is in many ways a continuation of the religiously motivated Italian Mannerism that had succeeded the High Renaissance. Accordingly, the vast majority of Baroque architecture involves the central template of the basilica with dome and nave. There is an apparent artificiality to the architecture of the Italian Baroque period, and although most of the buildings were religious, the designs constituted a major break from tradition. To this end, many of the buildings that were designed involved remodeling preexisting buildings. The clean compositions of prior buildings were replaced by a more theatrical aesthetic. Recent scholars have elucidated the ways in which Italian Baroque architecture was inspired by principles associated with classical music, with the dynamism of the compositions corresponding to the ebb and flow of symphonic music (Pierce). By the end of the Italian Baroque period, France—particularly Paris—was developing into the artistic epicenter of the world, although Rome still retained tremendous appeal (Wittkower).

The French Baroque movement is more closely aligned with the gaudy, grand-scale opulence of the English Baroque than with the ornamental dynamism of the Italian buildings of the time period. Many Baroque French buildings are often ascribed the label of "Neo-Classical." Unlike Italy, French Baroque architecture was centered more in the countryside than in the city. The French Baroque style was characterized by a greater emphasis on the roof, and the centers were favored over the sides of buildings, establishing a layered composition that revolved around a fixed center. This stood in harsh contradistinction to the Italian Baroque, which typically utilized a far more circuitous structure replete with swirling, dynamic movements. One of the hallmark characteristics of French architecture in this period was the integration between inner and outer space; the garden became a central aspect of the composition. At the end of the Baroque period, French architecture underwent a drastic transformation and became more dynamic and flagrantly artificial as the Rococo period arrived.

The English Baroque took significantly longer to develop than in Italy or France. The premier English Baroque architects were Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh, and Nicholas Hawksmoor. In contrast with the Baroque style found in other European nations, the English style was more secular and significantly more classically inspired. English Baroque art tends to be more classical and draws from the symmetrical compositions of Renaissance geometry. In lieu of the swirling, circular rhythms of the Italian Baroque, the English Baroque was characterized by massive, almost labyrinthine compositions showcasing the immense wealth that was poured into their design. Hawksmoor and Vanbrugh designed a number of churches together, and two of their most notable accomplishments are Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace. Although gaudy, they were both founded on principles of earlier religious architecture and have been said to invoke "the earliest days of Christianity" (du Prey).

The Baroque design style was permeated with the representation of power and influence (Hersey). It aspired to show the might and superiority of the Catholic Church. In doing so, its structures appeared more fluid, using moving elements such as curvature in construction. Spiral-shaped columns deviated from Renaissance ideals. Curves replaced the Renaissance idea of straight lines in a deliberate design move meant to imply fashion and energy (Partridge). Building features were given more convexity and concavity. Architects decorated colonnades to create an impression of spaciousness. The use of risalits in façades was an innovation which required a change in planning the supports, strength of materials, and use of other general design elements (Cohen). As a result of these shifts, different techniques of craftsmanship were required. Marconi writes that "the most popular techniques of the Roman Baroque building practices are the methods used to increase the masonry mortar setting time; the employment of unique mechanical devices; the innovative techniques in brick manufacture and laying; and the practices used in the supply and the working of lime, plaster and freestone" (10).

Galileo Galilei, Robert Hooke, and Isaac Newton produced efficient works in the 17th century for engineering. Galileo in 1638 published Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences, in which the force of gravity and its effects on objects was described. Robert Hooke's law in 1676 defined the phenomenon of elasticity of objects and the way they act when placed under load. Then in 1687, Newton gave his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in which the famous laws of motion were provided to give the structural importance of materials. In the field of calculus, Newton and Leibniz gave their theorems which serve as the primary theorems of mathematics (Stillwell 159). Theories given by Galileo, Hooke, and Newton in the 17th century were analyzed for the first time by Leonhard Euler, who checked the structural aspects of the work and worked in ways in which structural engineers could apply the aspects at a practical level. The Euler-Bernoulli beam was also designed by him with the assistance of Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) (Heyman 69). Jean Bernoulli gave the idea about virtual work in 1717, and Daniel Bernoulli pointed out the composition of forces in 1726 (Dugas 231). The term Euler buckling formula was introduced by Leonhard Euler in 1757 for the compression elements to help engineers (Bradley and Sandifier).

One can notice that innovations in construction technology had little to do with revolutionizing the machinery involved in construction. Ropes, pulleys, winches, levers, ramps, and other devices did not change. Rather, developments had to do with the idea of displaying power through building projects combined with Renaissance structural features such as buttresses, arches, and supports. Cohen writes that "it is at this point, with the 'idea' of power and strength as seen as more than just utilitarian notions to convey to the masses, that architecture and building technology become truly separate concepts with more esoteric meaning, with physical realities of technology belonging to the engineers" (Cohen). In other words, the gap widened between the architect and the builder-engineers in this period. Overall, the Scientific Revolution signaled a paradigm shift in how metaphysical ideas were presented and interpreted in the physical world of materials and machines.

Up to the eighteenth century, architect and master builder were regarded as the same profession. Howard Davis, explained in his book The Culture of Building:

"In traditional society, the builder combined the functions of design and construction that are now assumed by separate professionals, and the system of apprenticeship taught people to take these functions on in a way that combined thinking and doing. The word architect, when it was used up to the eighteenth century, usually referred not to an architect in the present-day sense of the word but to someone who assumed overall responsibility for design and construction. Almost invariably, these master builders came out of the building trades, and their responsibility lay not only in the production of drawings but also in work on the building site—work that included the organization of trades and the supervision of workers. Their work was in fact an extension of the role of the craftsman." (108)

Francesco Borromini was the Roman architect famous for designing the San Carlino Church. Borromini used a similarly rigorous methodology to the Renaissance, only with more free-flowing, dynamic movement. He is considered not only one of the great innovators of architectural compositions from an aesthetic perspective, but more specifically a progenitor of the Baroque use of space (Blunt). Before the Baroque, architecture did not have the plasticity that is found in Italian Baroque architectural compositions. Unfortunately, Borromini's erratic personality obstructed his productivity, and as a result he withdrew from a number of projects. His accomplishments are all the more impressive since he was often relegated to working on tiny buildings. San Carlino, for example, is particularly small in stature, and its undulating, almost malleable structure is a great masterpiece of Baroque construction.

Perhaps the most well-known of the Roman Baroque architects was Gianlorenzo Bernini, who designed the piazza of St. Peter's Square as well as the Sant'Andrea al Quirinale. One of the notable aspects of Bernini's style as an architect was that he was not afraid to juxtapose contrasting shapes, which sometimes created the effect of poor conception but was actually the result of a rigorous stylistic flourish. The style has been characterized as a "misuse of architectural style" (Briggs). One of the reasons why Bernini has been so influential is that he was not only an architect but also a sculptor and painter; he was well known for attempting to transmit human emotions through artistic means (Poseq).

Louis Le Vau was one of the foremost architects of the French Baroque period. He is best known for his monumental accomplishments with the Palace of Versailles, the residency for Louis XIV, for which he was commissioned. His inspiration drew from both Renaissance symmetry and the Italian Baroque. One of Le Vau's landmark features was the incorporation of nature within the grounds; the labyrinthine garden represents an attempt to domesticate nature that is a foremost example of Baroque excess.

In Baroque architecture, Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723) in London completely embodied the master builder tradition. He was given precisely these forms of responsibility and authority when he was commissioned to rebuild St. Paul's Cathedral. Wren both designed the new cathedral and worked with a team to manage the actual on-site construction. He was given the freedom to make design alterations throughout the process. He proposed several models along the way, which were subject to approval by city and church authorities, but it was clear that the authority rested in him to participate fully in hands-on aspects of engineering and building of the project. Wren was not only a great artist in his own right but also a teacher, who mentored Nicholas Hawksmoor (Chambers). In honor of his considerable accomplishments, Wren was knighted.

The Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1638–1646), or Saint Charles at the Four Fountains, is a Roman Catholic church and monastery in Rome. It was built between 1634 and 1638 by Francesco Borromini and was his first independent architectural commission. It is considered an iconic masterpiece of Baroque architecture (Vino Con Vista Italy Travel Guides and Events). The construction was designed and built as part of a complex of monastic buildings on the Quirinal Hill for the Spanish Trinitarians. Borromini received the commission in 1634 under the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Barberini; however, this financial backing did not last, and the building project subsequently suffered various financial difficulties (Blunt 53).

Francesco Borromini is known as one of the most important architects who worked in the Roman Baroque style. He began his career as a sculptor and worked with his famous contemporary, Gianlorenzo Bernini, on various sculptural projects in Saint Peter's Basilica. Whereas Bernini embraced a Baroque classicism, "Borromini's architecture adapted classical elements to a more innovative architecture that was defined by organically curving lines and a complicated interplay of geometrical forms" (Francesco Borromini and His Architecture). The design of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane conforms to the 17th-century predilection for oval designs combined with intricate geometrical patterns. Borromini oriented his S. Carlino oval longitudinally, with the entrance at one tip and the high altar at the other, and designed the walls to weave in and out as if formed not of stone but of a pliant substance set in motion by an energetic space. A principal feature of the building from an architectural point of view is the elliptical dome, within which there are various geometric designs and a lantern with the symbols of the Holy Spirit. Symbols play a central role in the design of the church; many of the shapes and symbols were taken from ancient Roman buildings, but the architect's purpose was not just to borrow from the past but to change and enhance the viewer's perception.

Both the monastic buildings and the cloister were completed first, and the construction of the church took place during 1638–1641. The serpentine façade, while designed early on in the building development, was only constructed toward the end of Borromini's life, while the upper section was completed after his death (Blunt 71). Borromini had to build his church on a highly limited and asymmetrical corner site, which greatly complicated the plan. San Carlo is considered one of Borromini's masterpieces: "In a space no larger than the base of one of the piers of St. Peter's Basilica, he created a church that is an intricate exercise in geometric perfection, with a coffered dome that seems to float above the curves of the walls" (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane). He is credited with inventing an original treatment of space that "creates an effect of rippling movement, especially evident in the double-S curves of the façade" (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane).

Saint Peter's Square is located directly in front of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, the papal enclave within Rome. This area was redesigned by Gian Lorenzo Bernini under the direction of Pope Alexander VII. The square is shaped as an oval joined onto a trapezium and is described as a portico of partly covered and partly open space. Bernini was employed to design it from 1656 to 1667 to enhance maximal viewing of the church (Norwich 175). Miller describes its construction: "It is two great arcs, each made up of four rows of gigantic travertine columns, with 140 stone saints writhing above them, all knitted together by two vast sickle-shaped entablatures which spring from either side of the church's wide façade" (Miller 5).

Bernini's design encompassed a plan for an elliptical square, 240 meters wide and 196 meters long. The square is bordered on either side by semi-circular colonnades. This had a symbolic value for Bernini as he felt that the colonnades symbolized "the stretched arms of the church embracing the world." The colonnades were built in 1660 and consist of four rows of columns with a total of 284 Doric columns and 88 pilasters. They are 20 meters high and 1.6 meters wide. One hundred and forty statues, depicting popes, martyrs, evangelists, and other religious figures were installed on top of the colonnades, all created by Bernini and his students (St. Peter's Square). The architect faced a number of obvious constraints in his design from existing structures such as the Vatican Palace as well as the granite fountain. To incorporate these constraints, Bernini made the fountain appear to be one of the foci of the ovato tondo embraced by his colonnades and eventually matched it on the other side in 1675. The construction of the square started in 1656 and was completed twelve years later, in 1667. A central aspect and focal point of the construction was the Vatican Obelisk, originally located at Heliopolis in Egypt and moved to Rome by the Emperor Caligula in A.D. 37 (St. Peter's Square). It was then moved to its present position in 1586 by the architect Domenico Fontana under the direction of Pope Sixtus. Bernini used it as the centerpiece of his piazza. The religious and cultural significance of St. Peter's Square is obviously related to its proximity to and integration with the important buildings that surround it, and its purpose of acting as an appropriate and architecturally attractive entry point to St. Peter's Basilica.

St. Paul's Cathedral is one of the most famous landmarks of London with its easily discernible dome. This Church of England cathedral is the seat of the Bishop of London and is dedicated to Paul the Apostle. The church site was founded in A.D. 604. The present church, however, dates back to the 17th century and was constructed in an English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren as part of a major rebuilding program after the Great Fire of London. When London was severely damaged by fire in 1666, the church was also damaged and had to be reconstructed. Three years prior to the event, the architect Christopher Wren had been asked to give his assessment of its condition. In 1667 he was put in charge of rebuilding the cathedral along with many of London's other buildings. St. Paul's Cathedral was the tallest building in London between 1711 and 1962. The building was partially paid for through taxes levied on coal imports (Beard 25).

The design techniques and styles used in the building of St. Paul's Cathedral varied over time. Wren designed more than fifty London churches. The first design for St. Paul's Cathedral was based on the classical model and put forward for consideration in 1670. However, this design was altered over time, leading to the Great Model or the Greek Cross Model—a domed cross design with a large central space, shaped like a Greek cross with a portico, Corinthian columns, and a striking large dome inspired by Michelangelo's dome at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. This design was rejected as being overly dark and non-processional, as well as too Catholic. The third design that Wren suggested included a larger nave and smaller dome and was accepted in 1675. However, after the approval of this final model, "Wren enlarged the dome and made several other adjustments so that the built cathedral now resembles the 'Great Model' and not the approved design." The significance of the design controversy is summarized by Soo: "the sequence of schemes for St. Paul's demonstrates Wren's empirical, almost arbitrary approach to design" (Soo 462).

The construction began in 1675 and the building was completed in 1711. Beard writes that "in all, across the years of building, 1675–1709, 41 contracts were entered into for mason's work, supplies of stone, bricks and bricklayers, carpenters, plumbers, smiths, sand, lime, carving, paving, gilding, and the Great Organ" (28). All were entered into a contracts book and signed by the commissioners. The most impressive achievement from a building and engineering point of view was the dome. As Sutcliffe emphasizes, "The dome, with its timber structure, false interior, and cone carrying the heavy stone pinnacle, was as much a triumph of engineering as a work of art" (Sutcliffe 36). It was a three-shell structure of brick cone hidden within an inner masonry shell and outer timber shell. The dome reaches a height of 111 meters and weighs about 66,000 tons. Eight arches support the dome. Downes writes that "probably no English cathedral previously had been designed entirely by one man; certainly none had been completed to one man's design and in his lifetime" (15). Soo gives a good summary: "as the result of a compromise between native medieval tradition and continental classicism, reconciled by creating a disunity between appearances and reality, the final design of St. Paul's is a clear reflection of social values and scientific philosophy in late-17th-century England" (462).

It is important to note that this building occupies a significant place in the culture and history of the English people. A number of important memorial services for national figures were held in the church, including the funerals of Lord Nelson in 1806, the Duke of Wellington, and Sir Winston Churchill in 1965, as well as Jubilee celebrations for Queen Victoria and peace services marking the end of the First and Second World Wars. The wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer was also held in the church in 1981 (St. Paul's Cathedral).

The Palace of Versailles is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France, also known as the Château de Versailles. It was the principal residence of the French kings from the time of Louis XIV to Louis XVI. When Louis XIV moved from Paris in 1682, the court of Versailles became the center of political power in France, until the royal family was forced to return to the capital in October 1789 after the beginning of the French Revolution. Versailles is therefore famous not only as a unique Baroque building but also as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the French aristocracy. Mark Twain said of it, "You gaze, and stare, and try to understand that it is real, that it is on the earth, that it is not the Garden of Eden" (Versailles).

The main attributes of the Baroque style can be summarized as complicated shapes, large curved forms, twisted columns, grand stairways, high domes, and trompe-l'œil paintings. While lavish details were used, French buildings were usually symmetrical and orderly. The palace was originally a hunting lodge for King Louis XIII (1601–1643). His son, Louis XIV, the Sun King (1638–1715), expanded the palace on a grand scale, employing the landscape architect André Le Nôtre, the architects Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, and the decorator and artist Charles Le Brun. The detailed renovation and expansion began in 1669. Approximately 37,000 acres of land were cleared to make room for tree-lined terraces, walkways, and thousands of flowering plants, with 1,400 fountains and 400 pieces of sculpture (Palace of Versailles). Le Vau, as Chief Architect to the King, designed the grand apartments of the king and queen as well as the stone façade facing the garden. He deviated from the French tradition of slate roofs and adopted the Italian style of an invisible roof hidden by a balustrade adorned with trophies and flaming urns.

When Jules Hardouin-Mansart was put in charge of redesigning and restructuring the palace in 1676, he added to the plans of Le Vau, built a second story to the palace, and constructed the famous Hall of Mirrors and the north and south wings. It is estimated that more than 36,000 workers were involved in the project and, when completed, the building could accommodate up to 5,000 people, including servants. The completion of the palace in terms of construction took place toward the end of Louis XIV's life. Restoration work to the palace was commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte, and continued in 1814 by Louis XVIII (Palace of Versailles).

The Palace of Versailles has become one of France's national monuments. In the 1830s it was decided to make the palace into a museum of French history (Palace of Versailles History). The palace continued to play an important role in European history after its construction; for example, "the Hall of Mirrors was the setting for the Proclamation of the German Empire and in 1919 the Hall was the site where the Treaty of Versailles was signed which ended World War I" (Palace of Versailles). In terms of architecture, this building became the quintessential European model of palace architecture, inspiring similarly grand residences throughout the continent (Baroque Architecture).

The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the middle of the 18th century until the late 19th centuries, was a turning point in Western culture and transformed the social, economic, artistic, and architectural environment of the time. Furthermore, the legacy of this social phenomenon had far-reaching implications in terms of the demands and needs of architectural design. An aspect that will be a central part of the discussion in this section is the focus on the way that industrial technology and methods of production altered the architectural process and to a large extent determined and allowed for more adventurous building concepts and ideas.

Fundamentally, during this era the use of steam power and the subsequent creation of factories led to enormous changes in manufacturing processes as well as in the types of materials used for building (Lorenzen). Europe's socioeconomic and cultural conditions were transformed (More). Technology introduced mechanized production systems that replaced manual labor, and the factory and large-scale industrial organization altered the physical as well as the social and cultural landscape. Workers gravitated to the industrial cities and the era of the purely agrarian culture came to an end. One should also bear in mind that the Industrial Revolution was a result of antecedent discoveries in science and technology during the era of the Scientific Revolution and the dominance of human reason and scientific rationality.

Conclusion

The above discourse covers a wide and very complex area of European history. The discussion has been focused on the history of architectural design, building methods and management, as well as the major architects and buildings during this time period. What becomes clear from the analysis is the way in which various interlinking cultural, social, philosophical, and economic aspects influenced and shaped the architectural vision of the architects, builders, and designers of the time. What is also significant to note is that the revivification and continuation of classical Greek and Roman design concepts and building methods were interwoven into the texture of the Renaissance mind and were used extensively in the designs of various important structures.