Russian Constructivism: Art, Revolution, and Design

Introduction to Russian Constructivism

The Russian Constructivism artistic and architectural movement arose in Russia after the Revolution of 1917. The Revolution set the stage for one of the most remarkable transformations of artistic theory in the history of art. The Constructivist form was born from artists such as Rodchenko who were in pursuit of a more innovative approach to art. The Constructivists strived to produce bold work in painting, sculpture, photography, and architecture through the use of new mediums. They abandoned traditional media and embraced influences from the progressive and technologically advanced industrial society that emerged after the revolution. The movement called for the artists' direct involvement in industrial production and, by extension, the construction of a new society.

Artists of this time tried to apply the laws of "pure" art to objects of utilitarian purpose and mass consumption, and to "build a bridge" between art and the new "savior" of the people — industry (Gray, p. 250). In the spirit of the movement, the Constructivists proclaimed the death of easel painting and asserted that the artist was a researcher, an engineer, and an "art constructor." The basic theory behind Constructivism was essentially to serve utilitarian purposes and to fulfill, if only unconventionally, the material needs of the people. The Constructivist artists and their works affected many facets of Russian life, including architecture, applied arts — particularly furniture, textile, and clothing design — book illustration, theatre, stage and costume design, and film.

Other important figures associated with Constructivism were Lissitzky, Popova, and Malevich. After the late 1920s, Soviet opposition to the Constructivists' aesthetic radicalism resulted in the group's dispersion. Tatlin and Rodchenko remained in the Soviet Union, but Gabo and Pevsner went first to Germany and then to Paris, where they served as the main conduits of Constructivist theory. In the 1930s Gabo spread Constructivism to England and in the 1940s to the United States. Lissitzky's combination of Constructivism and Suprematism influenced the De Stijl artists and architects. Although many artists contributed significantly to the movement, this paper focuses on the contributions of Rodchenko, Malevich, and Popova.

In order to understand the Constructivism movement, it is important to examine the circumstances surrounding the Revolutions in Russia in 1917. The Russian Revolution can be characterized as a violent upheaval that overthrew the czarist government. The revolution was the culmination of a long period of repression and unrest. From the time of Peter the Great, the czar form of government had become an autocratic bureaucracy that imposed its will on the people by force and often with disregard for human rights. As the czars adopted Western technology, Western humanitarian ideals were acquired by a growing group of educated Russians. Among this intelligentsia — the majority of whom were abstractly humanitarian and democratic — there were also those who were politically radical and even revolutionary.

The Russian Revolution and Its Artistic Impact

The reforms of Alexander II brought the emancipation of the serfs and opened the way for industrial development. However, emancipation imposed harsh economic conditions on the lower class and did not satisfy their need for farmland. Industrialization concentrated people in urban centers, where the exploited working class was a receptive audience for radical ideas. By 1903, Russia was divided into several political groups. The autocracy was upheld by the landed nobility and the higher clergy; the capitalists desired a constitutional monarchy; the liberal bourgeoisie made up the bulk of the group that later became the Constitutional Democratic party; the lower and middle class were incorporated into the Socialist Revolutionary party; and the workers, influenced by Marxism, were represented in the Bolshevik and Menshevik factions of the Social Democratic Labor party.

By March of 1917, workers in St. Petersburg and Moscow were striking and rioting for higher food rations. Nicholas II ineffectually sought to put down the workers by force and also dissolved the Duma. The Duma refused to obey, and the St. Petersburg insurgents took over the capital. Nicholas was forced to abdicate after the Duma had appointed a provisional government composed mainly of moderates. Although most Russians welcomed the end of autocracy, that was the only point on which they agreed.

The revolution in October placed the Bolsheviks in power, and by late 1917 the bond between the tsar and most of the Russian people had been broken. Governmental corruption and inefficiency were rampant. The tsar's reactionary policies, including the occasional dissolution of the Duma — Russia's parliament — had spread dissatisfaction throughout all parties.

For Russian artists, the Revolution raised hope that they might actually see a revolutionary state in which the avant-garde would transform the world, creating a new home for a newly modern society. The Constructivism movement was fueled by this desire and was successful in exploring innovative possibilities. The installation of Stalin in the 1920s, followed by the establishment of the Socialist Regime, put an end to this dream and ultimately to the movement itself.

Beginning in the last decade of the nineteenth century and accelerating under the increasing social pressure of the Revolution, Russian artists began to exchange ideas with their European counterparts — a move that was previously nonexistent in Russian art history. Russian artists responded with enthusiasm to the innovations of the West, especially with regard to technology and industry. The key innovators during this time were Kazimir Malevich and Vladimir Tatlin, each of whom contributed significantly to Cubist style and abstract art.

Alexander Rodchenko — painter, sculptor, designer, and photographer — is unquestionably an important member of the Constructivist movement. According to Dabrowski, "the work of Aleksandr Rodchenko represents a high point in the evolution of Russian Constructivism, its innovative, experimental spirit, its versatility, and its incomparable creativity distinguishing it from that of other constituents of the Russian avant-garde movements that flourished during the first two decades of this century" (Dabrowski, 1998, p. 19).

Key Artists: Rodchenko and Malevich

Rodchenko studied art at the Kazan School of Art in Odessa from 1910 to 1914 and then moved to Moscow. He soon abandoned a Futurist style of painting in favor of a completely abstract, highly geometric style using a ruler and compass. His first major show was part of an exhibition organized in Moscow in 1916 by Vladimir Tatlin, and in 1918 Rodchenko presented a solo show in Moscow. That same year, he painted a series of black-on-black geometric paintings in response to the famous "White on White" painting of fellow innovator Kazimir Malevich. In 1919 Rodchenko began to make three-dimensional constructions out of wood, metal, and other materials, again using geometric shapes in dynamic compositions; some of these hanging sculptures were, in effect, mobiles.

Rodchenko led a wing of artists in the Constructivist movement known as the Productivist group, whose goal was to construct closer ties between the arts and industry and to produce works considered more appropriate to the daily lives of worker-consumers. As a result, he gave up traditional easel painting in the 1920s and focused on other art forms, among them photography; poster, book, and typographic design; furniture design; and stage and motion-picture set design. He held various government offices concerned with art-related projects, helped establish art museums, and taught art.

Kazimir Malevich was a Russian painter considered the founder of the Suprematist school of abstract painting. Malevich was trained at the Kiev School of Art and the Moscow Academy of Fine Arts. In his early work he followed Impressionism as well as Fauvism, and after a trip to Paris in 1912, he became influenced by Picasso and Cubism. As a member of the Jack of Diamonds group, he led the Russian Cubist movement.

In 1913 Malevich created abstract geometrical patterns in a manner he called Suprematism. On a 1926 visit to the Bauhaus in Weimar he met Wassily Kandinsky and published a book on his theory under the title Die gegenstandslose Welt ("The Nonobjective World"). Later, when Soviet politicians decided against modern art, Malevich and his art were effectively condemned. Although he contributed greatly to the school of abstract art, he died in poverty and was virtually unknown at the time of his death.

Regardless of his obscurity at death, Malevich was the first to exhibit paintings composed of abstract geometrical elements. His well-known "White on White" (1918; Museum of Modern Art, New York City) is an excellent example of his Suprematist theories.

Conclusion

The Constructivist movement has been closely associated with the avant-garde tendency in 20th-century painting, sculpture, photography, design and architecture, literature, theatre, and film. Russian Constructivism sought to move beyond the autonomous art object, extending the formal language of abstract art into practical design work. It is clear that the concept of Russian Constructivism influenced the International Constructivism that defines a broader current in Western art. International Constructivists were certainly inspired by the Russian example, both artistically and politically.