Teacher Attitudes, Reflective Practice, and Teaching Philosophy

Attitudes and Beliefs

For many years teachers have been held accountable for the progress, success, and failure of their students. During those years the field of education has moved through various stages that have incorporated both the knowledge of educators and the desires of the public. Whether it was teaching to the test, inclusion, diversity, or technology that was examined, the nation's teachers formed attitudes and beliefs about how best to deliver instruction.

Attitudes of teachers can have a direct and significant impact on the success or failure of students. The attitudes of teachers are often tied to their beliefs, which are formed from life experience, classroom experience, formal education, and personal bias. While teachers cannot stop themselves from developing attitudes and beliefs, they can take steps to guide themselves toward attitudes and beliefs that will have a positive impact on their teaching (Carter, 2004).

One recent study "used regression analysis to identify the characteristics of teachers in an underperforming high school who were most likely to blame students and their parents for students' low achievement. The results revealed that the teachers who were most likely to do so can be characterized mostly by negative and contradictory attributes. The need for professional development that is aimed at improving teacher attitudes and beliefs about students and parents, and helping teachers to understand how their attitudes affect the quality of instruction that students receive, is underscored" (Carter, 2004).

The study acknowledges the fact that there have been many changes in education over the years, but points out that there has always been—and continues to be—a disparity in the success rate of low-income and ethnic students in the school system.

Teacher Expectations and Student Achievement

While teacher attitudes and beliefs have come under scrutiny for more than three decades, the focus has for the most part been on elementary school education. One foundational study concluded that a teacher's attitude toward individual students becomes a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy.

"When teachers were told that certain groups of students were either academically high or low, based on IQ levels, they treated the students in a manner that supported and perpetuated that level, even though in reality the groups had been switched. In later studies, Cooper (1979) and Ryan (1981) found the effects of teacher expectations to sustain rather than cause student achievement differences. In short, LSES students and students of color who are already behind are often not expected or encouraged to catch up and learn the skills necessary to survive in the dominant culture (Delpit, 1995)."

This discovery underscores the significant impact that a teacher's attitude and beliefs can have on students regarding their ability to succeed—or the teacher's belief that the student will fail. Studies illustrated that teachers who have faith in and high expectations for a student are more apt to praise that student. Conversely, a teacher who holds the attitude that a student or a group of students cannot succeed will not be inclined to provide encouragement or praise; when the student struggles, such a teacher does not offer help because of a general belief that the student will fail regardless.

"Furthermore, teacher expectations are often hidden, especially in how they ask questions, give feedback, and express personal regard (Brophy & Good, 1974; Good, 1981; Kerman, 1979). Behavior that may stem from good intentions can also be damaging to students. For example, a teacher may refrain from asking perceived low-achieving students challenging questions or from expecting them to complete homework daily. Students, unfortunately, sense the implicit messages in the teacher's behavior—messages that influence how they view themselves as potential achievers or 'at risk failures'" (Parsley & Corcoran, 2003).

Previous studies have indicated that students who experience attitudes of low expectations from teachers will withdraw psychologically and begin to fulfill those expectations. Over three years, even after leaving the low-expectation teacher, such students may continue to fail to reach for goals or improve their educational performance.

"In short, what teachers believe about education and students makes a pronounced difference in student performance and achievement (Apple, 1990; Collins, 1992; Cooper, 1979; Drew, 1996). This pattern of teacher behavior based on attitudes and beliefs is often cyclical and, over time, detrimental to the academic and emotional success of students" (Carter, 2004).

A study conducted recently sought to identify high school teachers whose attitudes might have a negative impact on student achievement and teaching efficacy. The study included the participation of 121 teachers in Southern California in 2002. The method used was a questionnaire distributed to high school principals, who were asked to have their teachers complete and return the forms; the completed questionnaires were then mailed back to the research team for analysis (Carter, 2004).

"A standard statistical software program (SPSS) for the social sciences was utilized to analyze the questionnaire data. Bivariate correlations and stepwise multiple regressions were run by the lead author. Mean substitution was used for missing data. Collinearity problems were controlled by excluding variables that had a tolerance level below .30. To enter an equation, a variable had to be significant at .05 or less. Variables were dropped from the equation if their p level was .10 or greater."

The 121 participants were teaching a total of 3,400 students, with two-thirds of the students being students of color. More than 300 of the students were ESL students. These factors resulted in an underperforming school by state standards (Carter, 2004). Statistically, 89 percent of the teachers employed at the school participated in the study. The average professional experience was nine years. Emergency credentials applied to nine percent of the teachers, with the rest holding full credentials. "Seventy-five percent of the questionnaire respondents were White and 54 percent were males" (Carter, 2004).

The study used a questionnaire designed to identify teachers with negative attitudes toward certain students—those most likely to blame students for any problems or difficulties encountered during instruction. When the results were analyzed, 57 percent of the respondents believed that if a student fails a test or assignment the student is largely to blame (Carter, 2004).

"Using this statement as the criterion variable and numerous other questionnaire items as predictors, a stepwise multiple regression equation was created. Nine variables entered the equation and, when combined, they represented 53 percent of the variance in the criterion variable" (Carter, 2004).

The study also identified key predictors that characterize teachers with negative attitudes and beliefs. They were as follows:

"The strongest predictor indicated that teachers who blamed students for failing tests and other assignments were also likely to blame parents for students' underachievement. The second strongest predictor indicated that teachers who blamed students for failing were unlikely to believe that most of their department-level colleagues were outstanding educators. The third strongest predictor revealed that teachers who blamed students were more likely than others to admit that they did not treat their students in the way in which they would want their own children's teachers to treat their children. The fourth predictor revealed that teachers who blamed students also tended to believe that most of their students did not want to succeed academically. The fifth predictor indicated that teachers who blamed students were more likely than those who did not to have a master's degree and/or a doctorate. The sixth predictor revealed that teachers who blamed students were more likely to believe that their colleagues at the school were outstanding educators. The seventh and eighth predictors indicated that teachers who blamed students were likely to state that they made the curriculum relevant to their students' lives and that they believed all students have strengths and talents" (Carter, 2004).

The study discovered an important aspect of attitude and belief issues for teachers: it was able to identify and pinpoint eight factors that contribute to teachers developing negative attitudes toward teaching, their peers, and students. This study is important to the field of education as it allows teacher educators to prepare programs with these factors in mind, and hopefully guide future teachers toward more positive attitudes and beliefs in their interactions with students.

Reflective Practice

Reflective practice is an important element of teacher preparation, providing a journaling method through which teachers can examine their developing philosophy and make decisions about how they want to instruct students as they enter the profession. In reviewing the impact of reflective practice on instructional decisions, it is important to understand the commonly shared characteristics of reflective teachers. They include:

"examines, frames, and attempts to solve the dilemmas of classroom practice; is aware of and questions the assumptions and values he or she brings to the classroom; is attentive to the institutional and cultural contexts in which he or she teaches; takes part in curriculum development and is involved in school change efforts; and takes responsibility for his or her own professional development" (Philleo, 2003).

Reflective practice usually involves the journaling of classroom experience. The journal can reflect on any aspect of classroom experience, but many times focuses on lesson plan objectives, their implementation, and outcomes.

One research study examined the use of blogging for reflective practice and its role in the instructional decisions teachers make. The reflective teaching model it drew upon was developed in 1995 (Philleo, 2003). "This model was used to satisfy the standards promulgated by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). The department's Reflective Teacher Model 'is based upon a philosophy of active and experimental learning, and critical inquiry into underlying issues in education and society.' It was intended to promote the use of reflective practice in all teacher preparation classes. It emphasized the use of learning journals. The Model described the characteristics of a reflective practitioner as those exemplified by flexibility, purposefulness, and a self-regarding nature. Posner (1996), cited in the Model, defined the desired reflective characteristics of preservice teachers through a review of the origins and effects of reflective practice as discussed by Dewey (1933) and Grant and Zeichner (1984). INTASC Standard 9 further delineates dispositions toward reflective practice as they pertain to a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (INTASC, 1991)" (Philleo, 2003).

It was through this model that it was determined preservice teachers need instruction on how to use, evaluate, and analyze their reflective practice efforts. "In an effort to assess the efficacy of student journals, Goldsby and Cozza (1998) and Collier (1999) promoted the use of several journal evaluation strategies that stressed the development of assessment rubrics and questioning strategies initiated by course instructors. The authors suggested that each strategy requires extensive, but timely, feedback loops between journal writer and course instructor" (Philleo, 2003).

Current research examines the use of online web-based blogs for reflective practice journaling and finds that they can be an effective and useful tool in the instructional decision-making process (Philleo, 2003). "Blogger was incorporated into the syllabi of two undergraduate preservice courses. The differences in these two courses, we thought, would reveal different characteristics about student use of Blogger. We anticipated that the technology course, given an emphasis on technology in education, would elicit student responses that considered the practical use of Blogger as a classroom tool. Whereas in the multicultural education course we anticipated that students would respond in a manner that would illustrate how students perceive Blogger's facilitation of journaling from a more personal, student-oriented perspective" (Philleo, 2003).

It is important to note that blogging is essentially journaling without paper and pencil; its use and reflective value are the same. Preservice teachers who use blogging as a reflective practice tool can also print out their entries and refer to them as they enter the profession as first-year teachers (Philleo, 2003). One study indicated that blogging as a reflective practice tool produced longer and more carefully evaluated entries. "While a determination of changes in student reflectivity was not the sole intent of this study, it is our belief that the depth and breadth of student reflectivity appeared to be positively affected by their use of Blogger" (Philleo, 2003).

One drawback noted in the study was student concern about privacy. Blogs are generally public, and even though many blogging platforms offer privacy settings, concerns about security were relevant for students entering the teaching profession. The reflective content pertaining to instructional decisions would not be something everyone would want made public, as entries sometimes contain personal bias as the student tries to understand the roots of his or her hesitancies.

"Journal writing can be a difficult and painful process. Seshachari (1994) stated that one of the main objectives of teacher-mediated journaling is to help students overcome the fear of writing. Once the initial fear is reduced, other objectives of subsequent importance may be achieved. These objectives include efforts to enhance student ability to reflect critically on teaching and learning and to promote journaling as routine reflective practice" (Philleo, 2003).

Several states have developed and implemented programs designed to help teachers strengthen their instructional decisions in mathematics and science. To accomplish this goal, the programs support and promote the use of reflective practice methods (Bruning, 1999). "One such program in Nebraska asks teachers to evaluate lesson goals, student responses, future modifications, if any, and their own responses" (Bruning, 1999).

During the past two decades, professional development has undergone many changes, and reflective practice has become a key element in guiding oneself professionally. For the purpose of instructional decision-making, a reflective practice journal can provide the insight and blueprint needed to change curriculum to fit the needs of students.

One study examined the success rate of teachers who use reflective practice in their instructional decisions. The study asked eight open-ended questions: (1) Please describe the new lesson, unit, or teaching strategy you tried. (2) How does this lesson or unit relate to the national standards or Nebraska frameworks? (3) What were your objectives and goals in the lesson or strategy you used, and why did you decide to use a new strategy or lesson? (4) Did students respond differently than in a typical lesson? (5) What evidence did you see of differences in student learning or student attitudes? (6) Will you do this lesson again? (7) What modifications will you make and why? (8) What have you learned from this experience? (Bruning, 1999).

The analysis of data was completed by independent raters using a coding system to score the answers. "If a behavior, activity, or thought related to workshop goals was explicitly stated or could be easily inferred as having occurred, the raters marked 1 (yes); otherwise 0 (no). One rater initially coded each of the reflective practice forms on the variables of interest, and a second rater coded a 10% sample of the forms independently to check for consistency. The interrater agreement for the forms was 93%" (Bruning, 1999).

The study included more than 1,000 teachers who participated in a workshop. Half of them agreed to complete a reflective practice form describing their use of a new unit or teaching strategy learned at the workshop (Bruning, 1999). Of those 500, only 314 actually submitted their forms. "Of the teachers who originally signed an agreement, 275 (48%) returned a completed reflective form, while 39 (7%) of teachers who had not signed an agreement returned one. These teachers represented grades K–12, with 195 elementary, 54 middle school, and 56 high school teachers responding" (Bruning, 1999).

Using the reflective practice worksheet, teachers reported that reflective practice helped them make decisions about creating a more effective classroom environment for their students. This study validated the current expert belief about the importance and credibility of reflective practice. It is a method that provides teachers with a means for self-reflection and decision-making for change, and it also provides a foundation for mentorship because reflective entries can be shared with mentors who can offer feedback based on their experience.

In another study, the actual use of reflective practice was examined for its success or failure. Recent research has concluded that novice teachers should use reflective practice for the first five to seven years of actual teaching experience. As teachers leave student teaching and enter their own classrooms, they encounter many situations that their education did not fully prepare them for. They must incorporate new experience with ongoing observation to make future instructional decisions that serve both students and their own professional development (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

For this study, the reflective practice journal writings of 17 beginning teachers were examined and analyzed. "The most frequent types of dilemmas posed by the participants concerned behavior management problems (eight), students in academic difficulty (six), and parents who disagreed with teachers' decisions (three). The most common solution, described in 12 of 17 cases, involved the use of a behavioral strategy. The lack of culturally relevant and brain-based strategies was markedly absent from the proposed solutions. This may suggest that the novice teachers in this study lacked the knowledge necessary to implement these strategies. The study also suggests that the writing and discussion of case dilemmas may hold potential in helping facilitate relationships between novice and mentor teachers" (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

This process is highly respected in the field of education as it provides beginning teachers with self-driven abilities to observe, evaluate, and change the way they teach and the instructional decisions they make. "The theoretical underpinnings of this study are found in the literature describing teachers as decision-makers (Clark & Peterson, 1986). More recently, Shulman & Colbert (1989) proposed that novice teachers would benefit from the use of cases, which contain a brief description of the practical problems and related decisions they face as they commence their careers" (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

"The purpose of the present study was to contribute to the knowledge base regarding novice teachers' cases. Recent research has suggested the period of novice teaching should be considered to span the first five to seven years of practice (Bullough & Baughman, 1997). Additional objectives of the study were three-fold in nature. The first was to document the nature of novice teachers' cases by describing both the nature of dilemmas and solutions contained in their cases. The second was to determine how case dilemma writing and discussion could be helpful to novice teachers at a point in their careers when they frequently adopt a survival mode. The final purpose of the study was to gather data to inform future efforts in which case writing and discussion are used among novice teachers" (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

The 17 teachers who participated in the study were all enrolled in a three-credit graduate workshop on educational psychology (Sardo-Brown, 2002). They averaged 3.22 years of teaching experience. Eight taught at the elementary level, three at the middle school level, and six at the high school level. Three were in urban school settings and the remainder in suburban settings.

Each teacher was told at the beginning of the workshop that they had to write a case dilemma drawn from their own teaching experience, based on the workshop recommendations (Sardo-Brown, 2002). "The principal investigators selected six of the 17 case dilemmas for discussion and analysis to be held on the last day of the workshop. These cases were selected based on readability and universality of the type of problem presented to the entire group of novice teachers. The topics of the cases selected for discussion included how to help a student control his anger and make appropriate choices; a parent objecting to the teacher's requirements for a performance-based assignment; failure of the school administration to provide appropriate follow-up to a referred student with a severe reading problem; a whole class of students struggling with the process of editing their written work; dealing with a student using inappropriate language; and working with a chronically disruptive student with attention deficit" (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

The study concluded that novice teachers encounter a wide variety of dilemmas when they first begin teaching and must make decisions based on those experiences. It further determined that using reflective practice journaling for those situations was a positive step in the decision-making process. "These data also suggest that while novice teachers may be most likely to employ behavioral solutions to the dilemmas they face, they are more likely than student teachers to involve both other school personnel and parents in the implementation of these solutions" (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

The assistance of reflective practice methods in identifying issues, brainstorming solutions, and choosing actions to improve problems was clearly illustrated as a result of this study. "In addition, this activity may improve decision-making involving either teams of teachers or teachers and other school support staff. Future studies might investigate the efficacy of using case dilemmas in conjunction with planned in-services as well as the use of case dilemmas to document longitudinal changes in teacher growth during the first years of teaching" (Sardo-Brown, 2002).

Additional research was undertaken with graduate students enrolled in a course for three consecutive quarters, following the methodology of inductive data analysis. "Data collection, compilation, and analysis closely paralleled the first generation study of Wylie and McClain (1993) and included a series of classroom activities that fostered a clustering of ideas which were organized and interpreted" (DeSpain, 1995).

The students were asked to complete a Philosophy Preference Assessment in which they identified themselves as existentialist, experimentalist, realist, idealist, or perennialist. They were then asked to prepare a Values Opinion sheet that reflected their goals (DeSpain, 1995). A panel reviewed those goals, and the data were compared with the goals of panel members. It was found that graduate students valued reflective practice and viewed it as a positive contributor to their career and philosophy-building skills (DeSpain, 1995).

"Among the large body of research literature on student teaching, some research focused on the impact of student teaching on student teachers in terms of their pupil-control orientations, attitudes toward teaching, beliefs in teaching, and so on. These studies reported quite different research findings. Some researchers concluded that student teachers become more authoritarian, rigid, impersonal, bureaucratic, and custodial after student teaching (e.g., Copeland, 1980; Emans, 1983; Glassberg & Sprinthall, 1980; Jones, 1982; Packard, 1988). Some inquirers reported that student teachers become more liberal and confident (Tabachnick & Zeichner, 1984; Zeichner & Grant, 1981). Still other scholars denied the impact of student teaching, sometimes even the impact of the whole professional preparation (Arnstine, 1979; Lortie, 1975)" (Shen, 2002).