This paper provides a comprehensive examination of textiles as fundamental materials in human society. It defines textiles and related terminology, traces their history from prehistoric dyed fibers to industrial-era mass production, surveys four primary material sources (animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic), and details production methods including weaving, knitting, and felting. The paper concludes by discussing textile treatments, dyeing processes, and contemporary finishing techniques that enhance fabric performance while raising safety and environmental considerations.
A textile or cloth is a flexible woven material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers often referred to as thread or yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibers of wool, flax, cotton, or other material to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibers together, as in felt production.
The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades such as tailoring and dressmaking as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibers. Fabric refers to any material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods such as garments. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but often refers to a finished piece of fabric used for a specific purpose, such as a tablecloth.
The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. However, for the main types of textiles—plain weave, twill, or satin weave—there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.
The Incas have been crafting quipus (or khipus) made of fibers either from a protein such as spun and plied thread like wool or hair from camelids such as alpacas, llamas, and camels, or from cellulose like cotton for thousands of years. Khipus are a series of knots along pieces of string. Until recently, they were thought to have been only a method of accounting, but new evidence discovered by Harvard professor Gary Urton indicates there may be more to the khipu than just numbers. Preservation of khipus found in museum and archive collections follow general textile preservation principles and practice.
During the 15th century, textiles were the largest single industry. Before the 15th century, textiles were produced only in a few towns, but during this period they shifted into districts like East Anglia and the Cotswolds. The production and variation of textiles greatly increased with the Industrial Revolution. In Britain, some of the earliest manifestations of new equipment and machines devised during this time period were for the creation and refining of textiles. The textile industry flourished during the Industrial Revolution, which was largely responsible for the wide assortment of uses and applications of textiles in modern life.
Textiles can be made from many materials. These materials come from four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute), mineral (asbestos, glass fiber), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic). In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibers, including plant, animal, and mineral sources. In the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibers made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas. The relative thickness of fibers in cloth is measured in deniers. Microfiber refers to fibers made of strands thinner than one denier.
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin, or silk. Wool refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped. The wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin, sometimes called wool grease, which is waterproof and dirtproof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fiber, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibers which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.
Other animal textiles made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox. Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly between 1000 and 1500 CE.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibers of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm, which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of silk: mulberry silk, produced by the Bombyx Mori, and wild silk, such as Tussah silk. Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibers from the plant are utilized. Coir, or coconut fiber, is used in making twine and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking. Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.
Fibers from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper. Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal, and even bamboo fiber are all used in clothing. Piña, or pineapple fiber, and ramie are also fibers used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibers such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fiber and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fiber has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibers like hemp or flax.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas. Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fiber known as alginate is produced and used as a holding fiber. When the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area. Lyocell is a man-made fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described as a man-made silk equivalent; it is a tough fabric that is often blended with other fabrics, such as cotton. Fibers from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as bast fibers.
Asbestos and basalt fiber are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting, and adhesives, transite panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets. Glass fiber is used in the production of spacesuits, ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fiber for composite materials, insect netting, and flame-retardant and protective fabric. It is also used for soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibers.
Metal fiber, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewelry. Hardware cloth (US term) is a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave. It is sometimes used together with screening on the lower part of screen doors, to resist scratching by dogs, and serves similar purposes as chicken wire, such as fences for poultry and traps for animal control.
All synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing. Polyester fiber is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibers such as cotton. Aramid fiber, for example Twaron, is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armor. Acrylic is a fiber used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fiber used to imitate silk and is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibers are used in rope and outdoor clothing. Spandex, trade name Lycra, is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits. Olefin fiber is a fiber used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibers is sold under the trade name Tyvek.
Ingeo is a polylactide fiber blended with other fibers such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration. Lurex is a metallic fiber used in clothing embellishment. Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fiber cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s. Milk fiber fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fiber.
Carbon fiber is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fiber reinforced plastic. The fibers are made from polymer fibers through carbonization.
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads called the warp with a set of crossing threads called the weft. This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.
Knitting and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The two processes differ in that knitting has several active loops at one time on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop, while crocheting never has more than one active loop on the needle. Spread Tow is a production method where yarns are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; Spread Tow Fabrics can be made in carbon, aramide, and other materials.
Braiding or plaiting involves twisting threads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying threads together and is used in making macrame. Lace is made by interlocking threads together independently, using a backing and any of the methods described above, to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine. Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.
Felting involves pressing a mat of fibers together and working them together until they become tangled. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibers and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool. Nonwoven textiles are manufactured by the bonding of fibers to make fabric. Bonding may be thermal or mechanical, or adhesives can be used. Bark cloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.
"Dyeing, chemical processing, and modern nanomaterial applications"
"Clothing, household, industrial, and specialized textile functions"
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