U.S. Presidential vs. Scottish Parliamentary Democracy Compared

Introduction to Democratic Theory

Different countries with widely disparate forms of government all lay claim to being a democracy. Many European parliamentary-style governments, for example, call themselves democracies. More centralized, presidential governments make the same claim.

What these forms of government have in common, however, are key foundational ideals. Democracy is a form of government based on aggregative concepts of a "common good." This concept has its roots in philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau's social contract theory, which states that a general will of the people gives rise to an unstated social contract. In a democratic form of government, decisions are made based on a "rationally identified common good" (Shapiro 2003: 3).

The United States has three main structures of government. The judiciary is tasked with interpreting and upholding the country's laws. The legislature, composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate, writes the laws of the land. Finally, the executive branch is charged with administering the country and is headed by a duly elected president. While the president is not a member of the legislative branch, he or she has the power to veto the legislature's bills.

The electoral method of choosing leaders implies an interest in pursuing a "general will." Hence, the United States is a representative, presidential democracy. Rather than directly making decisions, the people elect a president and representatives in Congress during separate elections. There is a clear division of labor between the executive branch and the legislature; as a result, the American president is not able to dissolve the legislature at will.

Scotland: History and National Identity

Scottish history dates back to 1034, with the welding together of Scots, Britons, Picts, and Angles into a single Scottish kingdom. Throughout the following centuries, however, Scotland had to fend off constant attempts at invasion from attackers such as William the Lion in 1165 and Edward I in 1290.

In 1297, William Wallace initiated the first Scottish rebellion against the English. By 1320, the Scots proclaimed their independence in the Declaration of Arbroath. The first Scottish Parliament was convened in 1326, and England eventually recognized Scotland's independence in 1328. Despite this recognition, wars continued over the next centuries. By 1707, the Act of Union merged England and Scotland into the United Kingdom (Lace 2001).

Today, Scotland remains an important member of the United Kingdom, although it maintains its own identity through its distinct economy and religious practices. Scotland's religious landscape is dominated by Presbyterianism, which is divided into the Church of Scotland and the Free Church. The Scottish Episcopal Church also has many adherents, particularly in the northeast (Lace 2001).

Though agricultural industries such as raising sheep and cattle remain an important cornerstone of the economy, much of Scotland's output is dominated by heavy industries such as mining and shipbuilding. Recognizing that global competition may soon render these industries obsolete, the Scottish government has sought to shift toward electronic and digital technology. With its growing role as a hub for electronics and computer firms in Europe, the Central Lowlands area has been dubbed "Silicon Glen" (Lace 2001).

Though Scotland and the United States share the same general type of democratic representational government, they differ markedly in their histories and forms of representation. As noted above, the United States is a presidential democracy in which a president is voted into office in elections held separately from those for representatives in Congress. This system has remained fairly constant since its inception in 1776 (Brinkley 2000).

Structure of the Scottish Parliament

The Scottish government, by contrast, is a relatively recent parliamentary democracy, having been convened only in 1999. For the hundred years prior to that, the task of running Scottish affairs was assigned to a British cabinet ministry headed by a Secretary of State for Scotland. Scotland was also represented by members in the House of Commons, the British Parliament's lower house (Lace 2001).

In 1999, the Scottish people opted for devolution in a national referendum. As a result, the British Parliament devolved many of its traditional responsibilities to the new Scottish Parliament. The new body took over many tasks formerly assigned to the Secretary of State for Scotland, including education, local government, health matters, and economic development. Though the national government still controls areas such as welfare, employment policies, and the allocation of public funds, the Scottish Parliament also holds a limited authority to assess taxes (Public Information Services 2003).

Like the U.S. federal government, the Scottish Parliament is composed of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Because of Scotland's distinct history and the terms laid out during the union of Scotland and England, Scotland maintains its own legal system separate from the rest of the United Kingdom. The High Court of Justiciary presides over criminal cases, while the Court of Session holds authority over civil matters (Public Information Services 2003). Scotland is also divided into six sheriffdoms, each with its own sheriff courts that have authority to try civil cases and most petty criminal cases.

The Scottish Parliament currently has 129 members, elected via a system of proportional representation. It has the authority to pass legislation on all matters relating to Scotland, except for "reserved" matters such as welfare and foreign policy. In addition to passing laws, the Parliament can conduct investigations into policy matters pertaining to Scottish affairs. The Scottish Executive is accountable to the Parliament and is monitored through a system of parliamentary committees.

In addition to its legislative duties, the Scottish Parliament is responsible for forming the Scottish Executive. Executive power in Scotland rests in a cabinet of ministers collectively known as the Scottish Executive, formed by the party or parties that dominate the Scottish Parliament. The process begins with the appointment of a First Minister, who is then charged with selecting the other Scottish ministers to head the various ministries. Rather than being directly accountable to the people, the executive answers to the Scottish Parliament (Public Information Services 2003).

Scotland is also organized into efficient local government units. For purposes of local government, Scotland is divided into nine main regions, which are further subdivided into individual districts. Similar to the national parliamentary system, local governments are headed by regional and district councils whose members are elected every four years. Though Scotland receives funds from the United Kingdom's central coffers, many local government projects are financed by a poll tax required of every adult. Regional councils supervise education, police and fire protection, transportation, and social work. At the district level, councils manage housing, local libraries, recreation, and sanitation (Lace 2001).

Conclusion

Both the United States and Scotland have democratic forms of government, premised on duly elected bodies acting as representatives of the interests of their constituencies. The two countries diverge, however, in how that representation is best achieved.

The United States holds that its people's interests are best served through the presidential democratic system, in which there are clear delineations between the legislative and executive branches. The Scottish government, on the other hand, holds that the parliamentary system allows for smoother governance run on negotiation and consensus.

References

Brinkley, Alan. 2000. The Unfinished Nation. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kagan, Robert. 2003. Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order. New York: Knopf.

Lace, William. 2001. Scotland. San Diego: Lucent Books.

Public Information Service. 2003. Factsheet on the Scottish Parliament. Scottish Parliament.

Shapiro, Ian. 2003. The State of Democratic Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.