Modernization of Chinese Government and Democracy

Introduction: The Chinese Dream and the Modernization Imperative

In the past 35 years, China has experienced significant transformation and modernization of its democracy and governance. This modernization process was set in motion by the death of Mao Zedong, the founding father of the People's Republic of China and Chairman of the country's Communist Party since 1943. Prior to his death, Chairman Mao had launched a Cultural Revolution in 1966 in an attempt to revive socialism, eliminate capitalistic corruption, and overcome bureaucratic inflexibility. The initiation of the Cultural Revolution was preceded by several political and social campaigns that urged Mao to propel the country toward the much-anticipated socialism, which was regarded as a promised paradise. Following Mao's death, China has experienced considerable transformation through socialism, which has in turn resulted in modernization of the Chinese government and democracy. Additional changes brought about by socialism include an economic transformation so extensive that China has become one of the world's major economies today.

The Chinese Dream is composed of three major features: national prosperity, people's welfare, and rejuvenation (Songhua, 2013). This dream has been the basis of every revolutionary, transformative, and modernization initiative adopted by the country and its successive governments. In essence, the Chinese Dream has constantly served as a solution to the long-standing issue of transforming the nation. Throughout the years, it has continued to carry the historical greatness of the country while conforming to the times with regard to China's present experiences and global changes. As the Chinese Dream has adapted to changing circumstances, modernization has been incorporated as a core component of it. The inclusion of modernization has become a defining and unifying factor by which the Chinese people and society move from the past into the future. Modernization was incorporated into the Chinese Dream because of the ancestors' dream of prosperity and egalitarianism.

According to the Chinese people, the Chinese Dream of the past century can be described as the founding father's vision for China to become an equal nation on the global stage. This has contributed to the country's pursuit of rejuvenation and modernization as China seeks to play a major role in the global economy. This dream has included every rich and poor Chinese citizen and has transcended regional divides over the past century and into the future. The Chinese Dream has essentially become the greatest calling of the nation's citizens for more than 100 years. It has provided the impetus for the country to carry out political, social, and economic reforms rooted in both rural and urban society, contributing to numerous changes in China's fundamental social structure in an exceptional manner.

China's Cultural Revolution and Its Consequences

During the past century, the Chinese people have constantly raised questions regarding the Chinese Dream, which incorporates national prosperity, people's welfare, and rejuvenation (Songhua, 2013). These questions and concerns are regarded as part of the solution to a century-old issue of transforming the country. The need for transformation during the past 100 years has been fueled by the fact that China is relatively the only ancient civilization that has effectively maintained continuity in today's world.

The need for transformation of Chinese society was driven by the fact that the country's social fabric had been deteriorating since the mid-19th century due to the effects of external forces. Moreover, calls for transformation were fueled by the tendency of the Chinese people to fight back when foreign powers attempted to bully them. Generally, Chinese society has been characterized by a century-old history of national struggle and humiliation. China's historical record shows that the Chinese people fought against aggression by foreign powers and feudal lords between 1840 and 1949 in order to gain national independence. As a result, the country embarked on a transformation mission and modernization path to rejuvenate the great Chinese nation — without necessarily reverting to the Han or Tang dynasties. This modernization path was largely a process of self-transformation that enabled the country to reach its current economic position in the world.

The transformation and modernization of Chinese society formally began in 1966 when Mao Zedong initiated the Cultural Revolution. Mao launched this process a decade before his death in order to eliminate capitalist corruption and bureaucratic rigidity and rejuvenate socialism in the country (Coase & Wang, 2012, p. 1). The Cultural Revolution was a by-product of political and social campaigns that persistently pushed Mao to propel the country toward the promised paradise of socialism. He launched this revolution based on the belief that China could eliminate poverty and move toward socialism through unity of thought and action among all Chinese people. Such unity would contribute to socialism and national prosperity by ensuring that people channeled their energy and talents toward a collective cause. In addition, socialism was meant to rejuvenate the unselfish and property-less Chinese people.

Mao initiated the Cultural Revolution at a time when the Chinese people had shed the burdens of history and feudalism and were free from the distractions of material interests and Western capitalism. Consequently, the Chinese people had relatively little option other than to respond to and participate in socialism. While the Cultural Revolution was initiated with good intentions, it did not generate the desired results because of Mao's deeply flawed ideology and the rushed pace of revolutionary change. In fact, the Chinese people ended up experiencing one of the most devastating famines in human history following the commencement of the Cultural Revolution. The revolution also detached the Chinese people from their cultural roots and from the development of contemporary society. During this period, the enterprising Chinese people were gradually reduced to lifeless cogs within the socialist machinery.

Political Modernization in the Post-Mao Era

Despite the unsuccessful attempts by Chairman Mao to transform China through socialism and the Cultural Revolution, China has been on a modernization path that has not only transformed its fundamental social structure but also changed its government and democracy. This modernization has largely occurred in the 35 years following Mao's death. The modernization of the Chinese government and democracy began during the post-Mao period, without a clear roadmap or final destination in mind. In essence, China's journey of modernization is the outcome of hardships, setbacks, and successes on the socialist road. The modernization path has involved the mobilization of billions of peasants and workers who joined national rejuvenation initiatives after passively waiting during the political, social, and economic reforms initiated by Chairman Mao. These people joined the cause and became part of an active leading force in the creation of an all-round industrial system and a nationwide defense system (Songhua, 2013).

From a political perspective, the modernization of Chinese government and democracy was influenced by two major events: the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the death of Chairman Mao. The fall of the Qing Dynasty contributed to modernization of governance in China by making it extremely difficult to reunify the country and its people. This fall was succeeded by weak governments that failed both to address local problems and to resist the aggression of foreign powers. These two major problems proved to be enormous challenges in governing a contemporary China. Consequently, reunification and the establishment of a strong government became prerequisites for development and for any plan toward modernization. This process focused on establishing a strong Chinese government with capable governance structures that would assume a key role in the nation's development. Reunification and independence in the development process were ultimately realized during the New Democracy Revolution.

The death of Chairman Mao provided the necessary impetus to significantly transform the country's history and position it on the international stage. The post-Mao Chinese government established socialist modernization and initiated the nation's great economic transformation. This involved a shift away from the New Democracy Revolution, based on a careful evaluation of China's history and contemporary realities. The post-Mao government pursued socialist modernization based on the premise that China's modernization could be accomplished through a socialist system. This belief was informed by lessons drawn from the strengths and weaknesses of the Cultural Revolution.

The modernization of Chinese government and democracy is also attributed to the country's development into a capitalist nation over the past 35 years. The post-Mao era was characterized by numerous reform initiatives that effectively made China a market economy by the end of the 1990s, culminating in its incorporation into the World Trade Organization in 2001. According to modernization theory, capitalism is the groundwork for democracy since it lessens state controls by highlighting the significance of the individual and the rule of law (Saayman, 2013). China became capitalist — and thus began modernizing its government and democracy — through the first two decades of reform after Chairman Mao's death. The major reforms that redefined and shaped the nation's government and democracy are examined below.

As previously noted, Chairman Mao had commenced considerable transformation of China through the Cultural Revolution and socialism in the decade before his death. During the post-Mao era, one of the major reforms that transformed China's government and democracy was an initiative designed by Beijing to revitalize the state sector and preserve socialism. This government-led reform took place in two phases, beginning with the phase that started at the end of 1976 under the leadership of Hua Guofeng, Mao's designated successor. Hua consolidated his power base by arresting the Gang of Four and bringing the Cultural Revolution to an end. Despite being loyal to Chairman Mao, Hua was widely recognized as an economic modernizer. He initiated an economic modernization program — primarily a state-led, investment-driven program focused on heavy industrialization, or big-push industrialization. This program was launched with the full support of Deng Xiaoping and other leaders in the country (Coase & Wang, 2013). The economic modernization program lasted only two years because of leadership changes and its own structural defects.

The second phase of revitalizing the state sector and saving socialism began at the end of 1978, when Hua's initiative was brought to an end and Deng Xiaoping and Chen Yun returned to power. Chen designed an economic reform program based on the belief that the Chinese economy had suffered mainly from a long-standing structural imbalance — namely, excessive investment in heavy industry relative to light industry and agriculture. Hua's economic program was abandoned amid strong opposition from the State Council, and Chen's economic policy was adopted, initiating the second major phase of reform.

The second major reform that played a crucial role in China's development as a capitalist nation — and the eventual modernization of its government and democracy — was the enforcement of Chen Yun's economic policy. This second round of Beijing-led reform was based on a two-fold approach: changes at the macro level and state-enterprise reform at the micro level. The process entailed imposing structural changes throughout the economy and allocating more funds to agriculture. Moreover, the Chinese government increased the prices of agricultural products by more than 20% and considerably increased grain imports. The enforcement of Chen's economic policy also entailed measures to decentralize foreign trade and grant greater financial independence to provincial governments. At the micro level, the economic foundation of socialism — state-owned enterprises — became the main focus. This initiative involved devolving certain rights to state enterprises and permitting them to retain some profits. Consequently, the Chinese government embarked on efforts to incentivize state enterprises from 1979 throughout the 1980s (Coase & Wang, 2013).