Antibiotic resistant organisms has become a topic of much debate in recent years. Antibiotic resistance is a serious concern because of the health care implications that occur as a result of this problem. The purpose of this discussion is to explain antibiotic resistance development in humans. The research will also provide a General overview of specific strains, causes and effects.
Antibiotic Resistance Development

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention antibiotics or antimicrobial drugs are drugs that fight infections that occur as a result of bacteria (. The CDC explains that once antibiotic resistance takes place the bacteria or other microbes has become resistant to the curing effects of the antibiotic. This simply means that antibiotics that were once used to cure bacterial infections no longer work. The CDC further explains that bacterial change is what leads to decreasing or completely destroying the capacity of the drug to work. In…...

mla

Works Cited

About Antibiotic Resistance. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved February 20, 2009 from;  http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/community/anitbiotic-resistance-faqs.htm 

Antimicrobial (Drug) Resistance." NAID. Retrieved February 20, 2009 from; http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/antimicrobialResistance/Research/basicResearch.htm

Brown G., Layton D.F. (2008) Resistance economics: social cost and the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Environment and Development Economics. 1 (3):349-355

Community-Associated Antibiotic-Resistant Staph Infection (CA-MRSA). CRS - Adult Health Advisor, 1/1/2009. Retrieved February 20, 2009 from;  http://web.ebscohost.com/chc/detail?vid=4&hid=112&sid=9108f53b-bba2-429b-aedb-27b601098faf%40SRCSM2&bdata=JnNpdGU9Y2hjLWxpdmU%3d#db=cmh&AN=36257566#db=cmh&AN=36257566

Conventional approaches including bacterial therapy are becoming less effective and in some cases completely ineffective for combating bacterial infection. Bacteria are evolving, becoming smarter and more virulent, and increasingly resistant to traditional treatment including antibiotic use. hile scan the literature available on probiotic use supports use of probiotics for treating drug resistant strains of bacteria in some cases (Diped, 2003). If nothing else the literature supports the use of probiotic therapy to support the body's immune system and strengthen the body's natural ability to fight off infection. Probiotics are also useful in many instances for reducing inflammation and restoring the flora or healthy balance of bacteria in the gut and intestine if destroyed by routine antibiotic therapy, a benefit that can alone improve one's health and well being significantly.
Section 4:Conclusions

There is ample evidence supporting the use of probiotic therapy as a potential treatment for imbalances in the human body.…...

mla

Works Cited

Antibiotic Alternatives." (2003, Jul - Aug). American Scientist, 91:4): 289.

Chen, C.C. & Walker, W.A. (2005). "Probiotics and prebiotics: role in clinical disease states." Adv Pedatr. 52(1): 77-113.

Diped, T.R. (2003). An introduction to complementary medicine. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.

Levy, S.B. (1992). The antibiotic paradox: How miracle drugs are destroying the miracle. New York: Plenum Press.

Macrolide: Erythromycin
This is a proposal describing a study to test the hypothesis that: The macrolide, erythromycin, normally used to treat individuals with community-acquired pneumonia, causes significant antibiotic resistance in patients in Europe but not individuals in the United States. 9 sources

To assess the prevalence of macrolide resistance (Erythromycin) among pneumococci in Europe and the United States and difference in frequency of Erythromycin use in both countries for respiratory infections. To identify the prevalent serotypes that cause pneumonia in both regions.

This will basically be a retrospective analysis of data collected by Public Health laboratories in Europe and institutions such as the Center for Disease Control in the United States. The two continents should be divided into 4 geographical regions each for the sake of clarity and convenience. Previous data relating to pneumococci isolated from patients with suspected pneumonia during a chosen specific period of time spanning about 5 years should be…...

mla

References

Cresti S, Lattanzi M, Zanchi A, Montagnani F, Pollini S, Cellesi C, Rossolini GM. (2002). Resistance Determinants and Clonal Diversity in Group A Streptococci Collected during a Period of Increasing Macrolide Resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 46(6):1816-1822.

A de Azavedo JC, McGavin M, Duncan C, Low DE, McGeer A. (2001).Prevalence and Mechanisms of Macrolide Resistance in Invasive and Noninvasive Group B. Streptococcus Isolates from Ontario, Canada Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 45 (12): 3504-3508.

Gay K, Baughman W, Miller Y, Jackson D, Whitney CG, Schuchat A, Farley MM, Tenover F, Stephens DS.(2000). The emergence of Streptococcus pneumoniae resistant to macrolide antimicrobial agents: a 6-year population-based assessment. J Infect Dis., 182(5):1417-24.

Hyde TB, Gay K, Stephens DS, Vugia DJ, Pass M, Johnson S, et al. For the Active Bacterial Core Surveillance/Emerging Infections Program Network. (2001). Macrolide Resistance Among Invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae Isolates. JAMA, 286:1857-1862.

Efficiency of Antibiotic Resistance Gene Transfer Mechanisms Upon Exposure to Triclosan
Triclosan has become the latest buzz word in the grocery store. It is being hailed as the ultimate biocide and finds its way into many everyday products such as toothpaste and hand soap. Mass media produced a great amount of hype and convinced the general public that this was necessary to protect them from potentially harmful or even fatal bacteria. Now the use of antibacterial products is being widely questioned by the medical community as it is now known that bacteria can develop resistance to antibacterial agents and that we may be producing a type of super-bacteria. The proposed research will explore the efficiency of antibiotic gene transfer mechanisms upon exposure to triclosan. It is expected that the research will empirically demonstrate that exposure to triclosan significantly increases rate and efficiency of antibiotic gene transfer mechanisms.

Efficiency Of Antibiotic Resistance Gene…...

mla

Works Cited

1. Addy M, Willis L, Moran J. Effect of toothpaste rinses compared with chlorhexidine on plaque formation during a 4-day period. J Clin Periodontol 1983; 10:89.

2. Chuanchuen R, Beinlich K, Hoang TT, Becher A, Karkhoff-Schweizer RR, Schweizer HP.

Cross-resistance between triclosan and antibiotics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is mediated by multidrug efflux pumps: exposure of a susceptible mutant strain to triclosan selects nfxB mutants overexpressing MexCD-OprJ. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 Feb. (45)2:428-32.

3. Clarke, T., "Groceries trip triclosan switch." American Society for Microbiology General Meeting, Florida, May 2001. Printed in Nature News Service. Macmillan Magazines Ltd. November 2002

Antibiotic Resistant Streptococci
There are more than thirty different species of streptococcal bacteria. The infections that strep causes in humans range from "strep throat," which is caused by Group A strep and relatively easily treatable, to diseases such as pneumonia and serious wound infections, both of which can prove deadly.(1)

Antibiotics were first developed during World War II, and have saved many millions of human lives since then that would have been lost to streptococci infections and diseases. Penicillin alone was solely responsible for dramatically decreasing mortality rates of soldiers wounded on the battlefields of World War II compared to corresponding rates of World War I casualties.

The widespread use of penicillin and more modern antibiotics that have been developed since World War II has been accompanied by the natural evolution of some bacterial strains that are resistant to antibiotics. In many respects, the natural ability of bacteria to develop antibiotic resistant strains…...

mla

Bibliography

Hurst, L., Russell, S. Superbugs and nightmare scenarios: Resistance to antibiotics grows; Toronto Star (Aug. 3, 2002) Accessed at  http://www.vaccinationnews.com/DailyNews/August2002/Superbugs&Nightmares15.htm 

2. Lopez, T. Study: Drug-resistant infections increasing in U.S. hospitals www.solucient.com (August 5, 2003 Press Release) Accessed at http://www.solucient.com/news_press/news20030805.shtml

Srikameswaran, A. Higher rate of antibiotic resistance here puzzles researchers; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (February 18, 2004) Accessed at  http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04049/274463.stm 

4. Staphylococcal and streptococcal infections

resistance of the planctomycetes organisms to the various antibiotics using the in vitro method. The aim was to establish the susceptibility of these six selected organisms; Planctomyces maris, Planctomyces brasiliensis, Blastopirellula marina, Planctomyces limnophilus, Gemmata obscuriglobus and hodopirellula baltica as reference points by exposing them to 18 antibiotics which overall represented eleven antibiotics families. The methods that were used in the in vitro approach were strain and culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing.
It was found out that Planctomycetes were resistant to b-lactams and glycopeptides and further it was established that most Planctomycetes organisms were resistant to chloramphenicol and to the aminoglycoside gentamicin. The article also indicates that in as much as the Planctomycetes organisms are naturally resistant to some antibiotic families, there were observed large differences in the resistance profiles among genera and species.

Assessment of drugs resistance

One of the clearest and most reliable assessment that one can make on the…...

mla

References

Ingrid K., (2008). Getting Rid of Superbugs. Retrieved February 22, 2014 from  http://infectiousdiseases.about.com/od/rarediseases/a/superbug_rid.htm 

CDC., (2013). Antibiotic Resistance Questions & Answers. Retrieved February 22, 2014 from  http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/antibiotic-resistance-faqs.html 

MedicineNet Inc., (2014). Antibiotic Resistance (Drug Resistance, Antimicrobial Resistance). Retrieved February 22, 2014 from  http://www.medicinenet.com/antibiotic_resistance/article.htm

Antibiotic Resistance Antibiotic resistance develops in the same way that human resistance to infection develops—through exposure, the body builds up a resistance so that whatever is introduced is less effective at performing its task. As Ventola (2015) notes, “the overuse of antibiotics clearly drives the evolution of resistance. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated a direct relationship between antibiotic consumption and the emergence and dissemination of resistant bacteria strains” (p. 277). Moreover, bacteria can inherent genes that are already resistant to antibiotics, which means that horizontal gene transfer occurs to create a veritable shield of defense against antibiotics. The more that antibiotics are used, the less effective they become and the stronger harmful bacteria can become. The complications that ensue are based on the fact that “when these resistant bacteria are all that are left, they are free to multiply, passing the resistance to their offspring” (Environmental Encyclopedia 4, 2011, p. 81). If…...

ole of Antibiotic Therapy in the Treatment of Periodontal Disease?
The objective of this work is to examine the role of antibiotic therapy in the treatment of periodontal disease. Also examined will be the delivery system, the type of antibiotics and efficacy as an adjunct to mechanical therapy in the management of periodontal disease. Toward this end, this work will examine the literature in this area of study including literature located in professional and academic journal and publications.

Sub-Antimicrobial Dose Doxycycline

The work of Preshaw, et al. (2005) entitled "Long-Term Treatment with Sub-Antimicrobial Dose Doxycycline Has No Antibacterial Effect on Intestinal Flora" reports a study that sought to determine if a nine-month regimen of subantimicrobial doxycycline (20 mg. bid) had an effect on either the intestinal or the vaginal microflora. The study involved 69 individuals with periodontal disease who were randomized to receive drug or placebo control for a nine-month period. It…...

mla

References

American Academy of Periodontology. (2000) Parameter on "refractory" periodontitis. J Periodontol 2000;71:859-860.

Andrian E, Grenier D, Rouabhia M. (2004) In vitro models of tissue penetration and destruction by Porphyromonas gingivalis. Infect Immun. 2004;72: 4689 -- 98.

Chen C, Slots J. (1993) The current status and future prospects of altering the pathogenic microflora of periodontal disease. Curr Opin Periodontol 1993;71-77.

Chen C, Slots J. (2000) Microbiological tests for Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Periodontol 2000-1999;20:53-64.

Antibacterial Soap by Children Promote Antimicrobial Drug esistance?
Patient Problem:

Today, young people are encouraged to wash their hands several times a day in order to stay healthy (Clean hands save lives, 2015). This guidance is based on research that confirms that regular handwashing is the most cost-effective approach to keeping young people healthy (Clean hands save lives, 2015). For instance, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) emphasizes that, "egular handwashing, particularly before and after certain activities, is one of the best ways to remove germs, avoid getting sick, and prevent the spread of germs to others. It's quick, it's simple, and it can keep us all from getting sick" (Clean hands save lives, 2015, para. 1). The potential exists, though, that using antibacterial soap versus regular soap and water causes antimicrobial drug resistance in children. These concerns are similar to concerns that the over-prescription of powerful antibiotics for routine…...

mla

References

Clean hands save lives. (2015). Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved from cdc.gov/handwashing/index.html.http://www.

Forrester, M. A. & Borthwick-Hunter, E. (2015, April 1). Understanding the development of musicality: Contributions from longitudinal studies. Psychomusicology, 25(2), 93-96.

QSEN. (2015). Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing. Retrieved from  http://qsen.org/about-qsen/ .

Rogers, C. (2015). FDA taking a closer look at "antimicrobial" soap. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved from   / consumer updates/ucm378393.htm.http://www.fda.gov/forconsumers 

Based on the results of these assays, S. flexneri can often be identified, although additional kits may be required. The simplest way, however, may be the novel approach through multiplex PCR (mRPC). It is possible to identify Shigella species through mPCR techniques by identifying pathogenicity islands associated with Shigella and S. flexneri.
6. How could you create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin? (You need to include techniques, steps, enzymes, etc.)

In order to create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin, scientists would first need to incorporate the human fibrin gene within the corn plant genome. The incorporated human gene would require regulation and promoter sequences that would function within the plant cell. Proper splicing sequences would also be required or removal of the introns altogether.

The delivery of transgenes into the corn plant could be accomplished through electroporation into corn protoplasts followed by…...

Psuedomonas Aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Epidemiology

The Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic killer that takes advantage of people suffering from medical problems (Van Delden and Iglewski, 1998).For this reason, P. aeruginosa is one of the most common nosocomial infection that occurs in hospitals. P. aeruginosa is responsible for causing 16% of pneumonia cases, 12% of urinary tract infections, 10% of bloodstream infections, and 8% of surgical infections due to hospital care. Patients who are immune-compromised are also susceptible to P. aeruginosa infections, such as patients undergoing chemotherapy, suffering from HIV / AIDS, recovering in burn units, and suffering from cystic fibrosis. With death rates ranging from 30 to 60% for these patients, P. aeruginosa is considered to be a significant threat to patient health.

Ecology

P. aeruginosa can switch between a free-swimming planktonic form and colonies enclosed within slime-protected biofilms attached to surfaces (Baltch and Smith, 1994, p. 1). The planktonic form…...

mla

References

Baltch, A.L. And Smith, R.P. (Eds.). (1994). Pseudomonoas aeruginosa Infections and Treatment. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Botzenhart, Konrad and Doring, Gerd. (1993). Ecology and Epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In M. Campa, M. Bendinelli, H. Friedman (Eds.), Pseudomonas aeruginosa as an Opportunistic Pathogen (pp. 1-18). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Hawkey, Peter M. And Kerr, Kevin G. (2004). Laboratory investigation of health care-associated infection. In P. Hawkey and D. Lewis (Eds.), Medical Bacteriology: A Practical Approach (pp. 331-354). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Hurley, Matthew N., Camara, Miguel, and Smyth, Alan R. (2012). Novel approaches to the treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in cystic fibrosis. European Respiratory Journal, published online ahead of print, 1-19. Retrieved 23 July 2012 from  http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/early/2012/06/27/09031936.00042012.long .

Antimicrobial Agents in Household Use: Triclosan
Describe how Triclosan works on a molecular level. Explain how Triclosan differs from soap and bleach in its antimicrobial activity.

Triclosan blocks the active site of the enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase enzyme (EN), this is the vital enzyme in the synthesis of fatty acid in bacteria (Levy et a, 1999). Blocking this active site by triclosan leads to the inhibition of the enzyme thus preventing the synthesis of the fatty acid by the bacteria, a process needed for building cell membranes and reproduction. Given the fact that this EN enzyme exists in humans, triclosan has been considered to be relatively friendly to humans. Due to its strong nature of inhibition, powerful antibacterial action can be achieved using only a small amount of triclosan.

Triclosan differs from soap and bleach in the mechanism of action. Levy et al. (1999) also clarify that whereas triclosan interferes with a specific…...

mla

References

Bester, K. (2003) "Triclosan in a sewage treatment process balances and monitoring data," Water

Research, 37(16): 3891-3896.

Levy, C.W. et al. (1999). "Molecular Basis of Triclosan Activity," Nature, 398, 383-384.

Lindstrom, A. et al. (2002) "Occurrence and Environmental Behavior of the Bactericide

Jerry Coyne's hy Evolution is True
I understand it contradicts the account in the Bible and other holy texts, if one takes a literalist interpretive stance, but given that most texts have more significant internal conflicts, I did not see why this particular theory would cause people to have such visceral emotional responses. I understand, intellectually, that evolution is not the first scientific advance to be met with tremendous hostility; there was also significant opposition to the notion of a heliocentric universe and to the idea that the earth was not flat. However, because people understand that other scientific ideas that were intertwined with biblical teachings have been proven incorrect before without damaging religious belief, I imagine that I assumed that people would be more open-minded about "modern" scientific theories. On the contrary, because of the strong scientific support for the idea of evolution, the choice not to believe evolution…...

mla

Works Cited

Coyne, Jerry. Why Evolution is True. New York: Penguin Group, 2009.

prokaryotes consist of millions of genetically distinct unicellular organisms. A procaryotic cell has five essential structural components: a genome (DNA), ribosomes, cell membrane, cell wall, and some sort of surface layer which may or may not be an inherent part of the wall (1). Functional aspects of procaryotic cells are related directly to the structure and organization of the macromolecules in their cell make-up, i.e., DNA, RNA, phospholipids, proteins and polysaccharides. Diversity within the primary structure of these molecules accounts for the diversity that exists among procaryotes (1). Identifiable groups of prokaryotes are assembled based on easily observed phenotypic characteristics such as Gram stain, morphology (rods, cocci, etc.), motility, structural features (e.g. spores, filaments, sheaths, appendages, etc.), and on distinguishing physiological features (e.g. anoxygenic photosynthesis, anaerobiasis, methanogenesis, lithotrophy, etc.). Prokaryotes are commonly known as bacteria, and it is estimated that bacteria have been around for at least 3.5 billion…...

mla

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (2nd Edition). 1989. Williams, S.T., Sharpe, M.E., Holt J.G. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2. Breiman RF, Butler JC, Tenover FC, Elliott JA, Facklam RR. (1994). Emergence of drug-resistant pneumococcal infections in the United States. JAMA. 1994 Jun 15;271(23):1831-5.

3. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Antibiotic/Antimicrobial resistance.  http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/html/ 

4. Jones RN, Pfaller MA (1998). Bacterial resistance: a worldwide problem. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. Jun;31(2):379-88.

" (Sharma, Kunimoto, Garg, & Rao) They believe that he information they are providing will allow the clinician to have a more expansive approach in treating bacterial keratitis and in deciding which secondary antibiotic to use.
The goal of initial antibiotic therapy for bacterial keratitis is the proper selection of a drug which has coverage for the aetiopathogen. Microscopic evaluation of corneal smears can provide insight into the identity of the pathogen, but when smear examination is uninformative the principle of managing bacterial keratitis has been to use antibiotics which have coverage that is sufficiently broad and effective to treat the leading corneal pathogens. (Sharma, Kunimoto, Garg, & Rao)

The main thrust for their interest in this study was to assist the clinician who is in less that ideal setting when faced with treating bacterial keratitis. As mentioned previously the virulent nature of this disease necessitates immediate treatment but the proper facilities…...

mla

Works Cited

Murillo-Lopez, Fernando H. "Keratitis, Bacterial," Unidad Privada de Oftalmologia CEMES [serial online] 2006. [cited 2009 Mar 23]  http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1194028-overview 

Sharma S, Kunimoto DY, Garg P, Rao GN. "Trends in antibiotic resistance of corneal pathogens: Part I. An analysis of commonly used ocular antibiotics." Indian J. Ophthalmol [serial online] 1999 [cited 2009 Mar 23];47:95-100. Available from:  http://www.ijo.in/text.asp?1999/47/2/95/22799

Certainly! Here are some science essay topic suggestions:

1. The impact of climate change on the environment.
2. The role of renewable energy sources in reducing carbon emissions.
3. Exploring the potential health benefits of genetic engineering.
4. The effects of plastic pollution on marine life and ecosystems.
5. The future of space exploration and its potential for human colonization.
6. The ethical considerations of using animal testing in medical research.
7. The development and implications of artificial intelligence in various fields.
8. The challenges and benefits of using nanotechnology in medicine.
9. Exploring the effects of deforestation on biodiversity and climate change.
10. The impact of technology on human....

1. The Impact of COVID-19 on Public Health: Lessons Learned and Future Preparedness
2. The Role of Vaccination in Preventing Disease Outbreaks
3. The Importance of Mental Health in Overall Public Health
4. Addressing Health Disparities in Underserved Communities
5. The Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Public Health
6. The Opioid Epidemic and its Effects on Public Health
7. Strategies for Promoting Healthy Eating and Active Lifestyles
8. The Use of Technology in Improving Public Health Outcomes
9. The Rise of Antibiotic Resistance and its Implications for Public Health
10. The Impact of Climate Change on Public Health.
11. The Role of Public Health Policies in Preventing the Spread of....

1. The impact of vaccination on the prevention and control of infectious diseases
2. The role of public health measures in combating infectious diseases
3. The challenges of antibiotic resistance in the treatment of infectious diseases
4. The connection between climate change and the spread of infectious diseases
5. The social and economic implications of infectious disease outbreaks
6. The role of international cooperation in addressing global infectious disease threats
7. The importance of surveillance and early detection in controlling infectious diseases
8. The ethical considerations of disease control measures during outbreaks
9. The impact of misinformation on public health responses to infectious diseases
10. The lessons learned from....

Philosophical Inquiries:

The Ethical Implications of Animal Experimentation: The complexities of animal experimentation, weighing the potential benefits to humans against the suffering imposed on animals.
Sentience and Moral Status: Exploring the concept of animal sentience and its implications for their ethical consideration and treatment.
Speciesism and the Exploitation of Animals: Analyzing the biases and justifications for treating animals differently based solely on their species, and its ethical consequences.
Animal Liberation and Animal Rights: The historical development and philosophical foundations of animal liberation and animal rights movements, including their goals, strategies, and ethical principles.

Legal and Policy Considerations:

The Evolution of Animal....