But a multi-disciplinary approach is always useful.
4. Should archaeology students be required to take ethnographic methods classes?

Yes, because that knowledge is necessary in understanding the cultures of local communities or indigenous people on whose territory an archeologist studies sites and artifacts. Local communities are also affected by excavations and the knowledge about them is essential for doing archaeology.

5. Why is timely publication important? The data are already old!

One of the main stakeholders in archaeology is the public. Timely publication is necessary for public accountability.

6. Should archaeologists drink in the field?

There is no rule saying that they should and there is no rule against mild drinking. Excessive drinking should be avoided although many archaeologists often indulge themselves in heavy drinking in the field.

7. Should field crews develop personal relationships with local people? How personal?

Yes, but those relationships should still remain within the confines of professionalism. The relationships should be personal…...

In this way, material culture and social paradigm were embedded in the cultural mythology of any given time in the past.
This once again emphasizes the inaccuracy of the Christian myth as the sole archaeological paradigm of research. The recognition of myth and indeed the "other" in the past provides the archaeologist with a fresh view of the past, which is much richer and wider than might previously have been recognized. Indeed, the "other" is even being recognized in archaeology today, with researchers often approaching natives for information about their history, their social structures, and their mythology.

This is a very far cry from the historical view of the native as barbaric and sub-human. According to Alcida Ramos (1994:80), it was only after a papal bull from Paul III that natives were even considered human. Christianity at the time was the only recognized myth that applied to human beings. As such,…...

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Bibliography

Bender, B. 1989. The Roots of Inequality. In D. Miller, M. Rowlands and C. Tilley (eds.), Domination and Resistance. London: Unwin Hyman, 83-95.

Bender, B. 1998. Stonehenge: Making Space. Oxford: Berg.

Gamble, C. 2001. Chapter 2: How Many Archaeologies Are There? In Archaeology: The Basics. London and New York: Routledge, 21-44.

Gero, J. 1994. Gender Division of Labour in the Construction of Archaeological Knowledge in the United States. In G.C. Bond and a. Gilliam (eds.), Social Construction of the Past. London and New York: Routledge, 144-153.

Archaeology
After brushing off all the debris, the team of archaeologists lifted the time capsule with a great sense of satisfaction and placed it on the research table. Inside we found five items that will enhance our understanding of life in the United States of America, circa 1969. The first two items we unearthed from the time capsule were bundled together using a piece of rough twine. The larger of the two objects was a disk, encased in a paper sheath. It was about one foot in diameter. When we examined the sheath, it had colorful artwork on it. The disk inside was black, and was etched with rings that looked like those found on a tree trunk after you cut it. Attached to the paper sheath with the piece of twine was a small envelope. Inside the envelope were two pieces of paper, which appeared to be tickets to an…...

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References

Becker, H.S. (1967). History, culture, and subjective experience. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 8(3): 163-176.

Brattin, J. (2010). "Hendrix and Woodstock: 10 Little Known Facts about the Performance That Defined the '60s." WPI. Retrieved online:  http://www.wpi.edu/news/20090/woodstock.html 

Henderson, D. (1996). 'Scuse Me While I Kiss the Sky. Bantam.

Savishinsky, N.J (1994). Transnational popular culture and the global spread of the Jamaican Rastafarian movement. KITLV 68(3, 4).

Archaeology
The Archaeological and Historical Consequences of the U.S. Invasion of Iraq

Like any war, the war waged against Iraq by U.S. forces has resulted in the destruction of more than just military sites. Many of Iraq's cultural sites, including museums, libraries and significant ancient sites have been the victims of destruction.

According to article by National Geographic News, "although U.S. bombs have spared most sites and treasures, some ancient locations have been seriously damaged by recent looting and long-tern neglect" (National Geographic News, 2003). Iraq is of key interest to historians and archaeologists alike and these ancient sites provide a wealth of information about early civilization.

An early tourist guide on Iraq, which was printed in 1982 states "Few countries in the world are as rich in archaeology as Iraq. The Iraq National Museum, with its great, well-organized and carefully labeled collection of archaeological finds is a reflection of this richness (Radio Free…...

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Bibliography

Iraqi Sites Show Theft, Destruction." National Geographic News. June 2003.http://www.news.nationalgeographic.com."Ancient

Iraq: For Many, Destruction of Cultural Sites The Most Devastating Aspect of War." Zamira Eshanova. Radio Free Europe Reprint. 2003.

Archaeology
The issue at hand with respect to Olmec pottery relates to the chemical composition of the pottery sherds, and the implications that these chemical compositions have for the trade of pottery among the people of the Mexican highlands. There are two positions posited in the readings, and Sharer (2006) does a good job of explaining the issue. All of the researchers use instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to determine the chemical composition of the sherds. At issue is the interpretation of the INAA results and the extrapolation of those results into findings about trade patterns. On the first point, Sharer (2006) notes that "it has long been acknowledged that INAA leadsto chemical composition groups." The two camps arguing take different interpretations of this, with one camp taking a broader view with respect to the potential number of materials and the other group interpreting the INAA results in a more specific…...

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References

Petrographic Evidence shows that Pottery Exchange between the Olmec and their neighbors was two ways Stoloman et al. 2005

On the Logic of Archaeological Inference: Early Formative Pottery and the Evolution of Mesoamerican Societies

Sharer et al., 2006

Olmec Pottery Production and Export in Ancient Mexico Determined through Elemental Analysis, Jeffery P. Bolmster, Science 307 (2005)

Nobles, Connie . (2000). Gazing upon the invisible: Women and children at the Old Baton Rouge Penitentiary. American Antiquity, 65(1), 5.

Archaeological investigation of the Old Baton Rouge Penitentiary includes studying artifacts to determine the conditions of the children and women who were housed there as prisoners. "There were a total of 1,310 artifacts collected from this site. Five major categories of items include: 1) ceramic goods, 2) glass vessels, 3) metal, 4) faunal materials, and 5) leather goods. These artifacts include a variety of goods that express the lives of both the prisoners and their guards" (p. 5).

Urwin, Gregory J.W. (2004). Black flag over Dixie: Racial atrocities and reprisals in the Civil War. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

According to this source, archaeological finds in the area of Fort Pillow in enning, Tennessee including large caches of alcohol, and the author speculates that drunkenness among the troops, who were provided…...

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Historical archaeological investigations of the Civil War battlefields in the Old South have provided modern researchers with an "appreciation of the complexities inherent in ethnicity in the past, through the powerful integration of multiple data sources that place objects in richer contexts" (p. 603). Because the findings of such investigations are typically communicated to the local public in various ways, such studies remain an important source of cultural binding today. For instance, "The proliferation of ethnic festivals reflects not only the post-Civil War emigration of many Europeans but also the rediscovery of local heritage in many communities" (p. 603).

Thomas, Brian W. (1998). Power and community: The archaeology of slavery at the Hermitage Plantation. American Antiquity, 63(4), 531.

Because of the fundamental role played by power relations in the institution of slavery at it existed in the Old South prior to and during the Civil War, these relations must be considered when trying to interpret the archaeological artifacts of slavery. The author emphasizes that empirical observations and experience confirm that material culture is frequently involved in inextricable ways in establishing and maintaining social relations; however, the precise nature of this participation remains unclear. Because human actors manipulate material culture as a part of complex, at times contradictory, social actions, modern Civil War archaeologists are confronted with some profound challenges in directly correlating material remains with specific social relations. "Given the centrality of power in the plantation social milieu, however, one would expect the material remains from such sites to reflect its pervasive role - as indeed they do" (p. 531).

iblical Archaeology - Jericho
The story of the attempt to match up the archaeology of ancient Jericho with the account given in the Hebrew ible has come to be regarded as something of a cautionary tale in the history of iblical archaeology. Laughlin in Archaeology and the ible (2000) invokes Jericho in precisely that way, as the most generalized example that he can find to warn against trying to force archaeological data onto a hermeneutically Procrustean framework derived from the Old Testament:

For the student interested in "iblical Archaeology" there are two sets of data: the archaeological and the biblical. The ible can no longer be accepted uncritically as a "historical" account of ancient Israel, if by historical we mean all the modern connotations of that term. Rather the ible interprets through theological, and even mythological, lenses what archaeologists must interpret through scientific/historical ones. The case of the story of the destruction…...

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Bibliography

Bar-Yosef, O. The walls of Jericho: An alternative interpretation. Current Anthropology 27 (1986): 57 -- 62. Print.

Burroughs, William J. Climate Change in Prehistory: The End of the Reign of Chaos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print.

Cline, Eric. Biblical Archaeology. New York and London: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Diaz-Andreu, Margarita. A World History of Nineteenth Century Archaeology. New York and London: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Media Archaelogy and Videogames
In today's world, the rapid development of technology has opened worlds of vast information and entertainment that are instantly accessible at the touch of a button. The relationships created in this way not only involve those we interact with online or via gaming, but also our own perception, the mental imagery we create and the apparatus we use to access these. A researcher who truly wants to understand the past of a medium cannot only work with historical imagery or archival footage. There must also be a consideration of the technologies used in the past; the technology used to create historical imagery and archival footage. This is the point of study for media archaeology; where the researcher studies the specific technological devices used in the past to create media from the past and how this developed and its relationship to technology today.

Media archaeology is a field of…...

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References

Anderson, S.F. (2011). Technologies of History: Visual Media and the Eccentricity of the Past (Interfaces: Studies in Visual Culture). Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England.

Ernst, W. And Parikka, J. (2012). Digital Memory and the Archive (Electronic Mediations). University of Minnesota Press.

Foucault, M. (2002). Archaeology of Knowledge. Michel Foucault. Routledge; 2 edition.

Friedberg, A. (2009). The Virtual Window: From Alberti to Microsoft. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Biblical Archaeology by G.E. Wright
This book, like its name, focuses on many of the archaeological findings that relate to the history of the Bible. Often, it is difficult to comprehend where many places in the Bible really are and what the world was like then. Because of this, archaeological information can help greatly in forming an understanding of Biblical times and Biblical lands. This book is not just for those with a casual interest in archaeology, however. It follows the chronology of the Bible and deals with the Biblical story quite frequently. It is neither just a text about archaeological discoveries or just a text about the history of the Bible. It is both, and it has to be both in order for it to make sense and be complete when it comes to understanding what it needed when studying archaeological information and how it relates to what is found…...

"Secondly, experience has shown that military cemeteries are somewhat unique and easily recognizable by the fact that there is a high level of traumatic injuries in the population, generally on the left side of the body, where soldiers usually attempt to ward off blows from a right-handed attacker." (Zias) the assumption was that these graves were not an unplanned military grave because the normal thing to do at the time was to bury soldiers in mass graves. The Qumran Cemetery was a well planned sight that was too well organized and it showed a great deal of coordinated planning and use over time.
The women and children discovered on the Qumran sight could have put doubt in the theory that the sight was in fact Essene. But there were other theories to would justify a woman or child being buried at that particular cemetery. "Elder poses some interesting solutions to…...

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Works Cited

Zias, Joe. "Celibacy: Confusion Laid to Rest?" Dead Sea Discoveries Vol. 7 (2000): pp. 220-53. Retrieved on 3 Nov. 2004, from www.joezias.com/QumranCemetry.htm.

Peer Review

Astroarchaeology
There is little doubt that ancient civilizations and the thought of visitors from outer space are two subjects that easily capture the imagination. Most people are fascinated by one or the other or both. In fact, even science fiction gained some mileage out of combining the two; 'documentaries' often run on the non-major network stations purporting to show that earthworks of various kinds, and even patterns in fields of crops, were made by visitors from outer space. Often, the documentary makers attempt to draw parallels between the work of ancient civilizations, from the Celtic to the Mayan, and the 'work' of the visitors from outer space. It's a shame that they have to do that. The connections that have already been found between ancient civilizations -- particularly the Mayan -- and life on earth today are quite amazing enough.

Forget 2000; the real danger will arrive in 2012

The Mayan calendar was…...

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Works Cited

Hawkins, Gerald S. Mindsteps to the Cosmos. 1st ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1983.

Mehra, Jagdish. The Beat of a Different Drum: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Stearns, Peter N. Millennium III, Century XXI: A Retrospective on the Future. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998.

Archaeology is a social science, with an emphasis on the word science. This means that the work that is conducted is done in a systematic acquisition of new knowledge about nature and the body of already existing knowledge gained. The scientific method is based on careful observation and the testing of theories by experiments. Archaeology uses these scientific procedures to study antiquities such as the remains of buildings or monuments of an early age, inscriptions, implements, written manuscripts and other relics.
An archaeological excavation, therefore, consists of a process including an initial site survey, breaking the area to be excavated into quadrants, carefully removing soil, recording precise locations of objects and features or provenance, marking and photographing each incremental soil layer (every piece of information retrieved from the site must be related to the layers, finds and structures around it, so that the complex relationships that contribute to the interpretation of…...

Archaeology
Although named after La Gravette in the Dordogne in France, the Gravettian culture was largely focused in Central Europe (Lysianassa). The Gravettian culture probably migrated there from the Middle East, Anatolia, and the Balkans ("History of Europe" 2). The Gravettian culture is generally believed to be a subset of the larger group called the Aurignacian, and portable items like figurines and tools figured prominently among the people. Their frequent and large-scale migratory patterns show that portable figurines like the Venus of Dolni Vestonice were important objects to the Gravettian culture.

In general, the Gravettian culture "represents subsistence innovations, burial customs, landscape organization, the beginnings of art, projectile technology and other non-utilitarian elements of human behavior, (Lysianassa). In addition to small ceramic objects like the Venus of Dolni Vestonice, the Gravettian people produced cave paintings and other decorative arts. Lienard notes that the Gravettian people were "seriously producing art objects," which had…...

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Works Cited

De Laet, Sigfried J. History of Humanity: Prehistory and the Beginnings of Civilization. Taylor & Francis, 1994.

Haynes, Gary. The Early Settlement of North America. Cambridge University Press, 2002.

"History of Europe." Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved online: http://books.google.com/books?id=Kiug84qYTaYC&pg=PA2&dq=gravettian+culture&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nDuHT7akBI-s8QTms9S0CA&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=gravettian%20culture&f=false

Lienard, John H. "The Dolni Vestonice Ceramics." Engines of Our Ingenuity. Retrieved online:  http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi359.htm

Archaeological Sites in the U.S.
Underwater Archaeology

This paper examines underwater archaeology in the U.S. The paper discusses excavation techniques, tools and technology and also explores the Clovis theory. The paper also reviews findings at several submerged North American prehistoric archeological sites.

Underwater survey and excavation are typically more expensive and logistically more complex than comparable terrestrial projects. Underwater conditions involve more variability from site to site, and even from hour to hour at the same site. All survey and excavation work is constrained by safety factors; in general the deeper the site, the less time that a scuba diver can remain at that depth. Other factors that are frequently less than ideal include water currents, temperature, and visibility (Merwin, Lynch, and Robinson, 42).

Nonetheless, the potential to recover significant archaeological data outweighs the disadvantages of working underwater. In fact, underwater sites may allow for the preservation of organic materials such as bone,…...

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Works Cited

Anderson, David G. And Faught, Michael K. "The Paleoindian Period (ca. 13,000 B.C. To 7,900 B.C.)." National Park Service. n.d. Web. 6 May 2012. .

Faught, Michael K. "Submerged Paleoindian and Archaic Sites of the Big Bend, Florida." Journal of Field Archaeology 29, 3-4, (2004): 273-290.

"Florida's First People" Florida State University 2004. Web. 6 May 2012. .

Merwin, Daria E., Lynch, Daniel P., and Robinson, David, S. "Submerged Prehistoric Sites in Southern New England: Past Research and Future Directions" Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut 65 (2003): 41-56.

Situated on the Colorado plateau not far from Flagstaff, the monument is well-run by a team of professionals that can offer interested visitors educational tours. The U.S. Forest Service retains surrounding lands for campgrounds and also offers interpretive tours.
University input from Northern Arizona University and professional assistance from the Museum of Northern Arizona ensures that the project is well-maintained and well-preserved while it is enjoyed by the general public. Waputki is therefore a true example of public archaeology. Stakeholders like the Hopi and Navajo nations can therefore rest assured that the rich traditions of their ancestors are preserved and protected. Organizations like the FLAG Foundation help with raising and retaining funding for the Wupatki National Monument.

eferences

Center for Desert Archaology. (nd). "Visiting Places of the Past: Waputki National Monument." etrieved June 29, 2007 at http://www.cdarc.org/visit/wupatki.php

Northern Arizona University's Partnership for Public Archaeology. etrieved June 29, 2007 at http://www4.nau.edu/idig/default.htm

US Department of the…...

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References

Center for Desert Archaology. (nd). "Visiting Places of the Past: Waputki National Monument." Retrieved June 29, 2007 at  http://www.cdarc.org/visit/wupatki.php 

Northern Arizona University's Partnership for Public Archaeology. Retrieved June 29, 2007 at http://www4.nau.edu/idig/default.htm

US Department of the Interior. (nd). Wuptaki National Monument. Retrieved June 29, 2007 at  http://www.nps.gov/archive/wupa/home.htm

1. The origins and development of Norman theory in Russia
2. The controversial debate surrounding the Norman theory of Russian history
3. The impact of the Norman theory on Russian national identity and historiography
4. The influence of Norman theory on Russian political discourse and foreign relations
5. The significance of the Varangian Rus' in Russian history and culture
6. Comparing and contrasting the Norman theory with alternative theories of Russian origins
7. The role of archaeology in shaping our understanding of the Varangian Rus' and Norman theory
8. The portrayal of the Varangians in Russian literature and folklore
9. The connection between the Norman theory and the....

1. The history and significance of Schokland as a former island in the Zuiderzee
2. The impact of the reclamation of the Zuiderzee on the people and landscape of Schokland
3. The cultural heritage and archaeology of Schokland as a UNESCO World Heritage site
4. The relationship between Schokland and the surrounding polders in the Netherlands
5. The role of Schokland in Dutch folklore and legends
6. The environmental challenges facing Schokland and its future sustainability
7. The architectural and archaeological remains on Schokland and their preservation
8. The significance of Schokland as a symbol of the struggle against water in the Netherlands
9. The community and daily....

The Significance of Skin Color in Ancient Egyptian Historical Identity
Skin color played a significant role in the historical identity of ancient Egyptians, shaping their cultural perceptions, social hierarchy, and interactions with other civilizations. Despite the common misconception of ancient Egyptians as solely a dark-skinned people, archaeological evidence and historical accounts reveal a more nuanced understanding of their diverse skin tones.
Historical Representations
Ancient Egyptian art depicts individuals with a wide range of skin colors, from light to dark. Statues, paintings, and reliefs show individuals with fair, olive, and reddish-brown skin, reflecting the ethnic diversity of the population. While dark skin tones were....

1. In an era before the advent of modern transportation and communication, the Vikings emerged as unlikely pioneers of globalization. Their audacious maritime expeditions not only connected disparate lands but also fostered a vibrant exchange of ideas, goods, and cultural influences that laid the foundation for the first wave of globalization.

2. Like a thread woven through the tapestry of history, the Vikings left an enduring mark on the interconnectedness of the world. Through their relentless exploration and trade, they forged connections that transcended geographical boundaries and sowed the seeds of cultural diversity that characterizes globalization today.

....