..To speak to or go near the sick brought infection and a common death... To touch the clothes (which) the sick had touched or worn gave the disease to the person touching" (Williams, 167). This description is quite accurate, yet even well-educated and enlightened occaccio himself did not know how the plague was spread from one person to another. It is also true that the plague bacillus could be spread simply by touching a piece of clothing worn by a dying person, due to rat fleas which would jump from the clothing to the person holding it without ever being aware of it.
Thus, under these extraordinary circumstances, the lack Death, so named because of the black buboes which appear on the body, completely mystified the medical community and its doctors whom at the time had been trained on pseudo-science, ignorance and superstition. As a result, all those who managed to….

This suffering was not exclusive to the lower classes with all social groups being affected. Outbreaks of bubonic plague were a regular feature of the Medieval Period though never as severe. Those who survived the plague were compelled to adjust to a new social and economic reality. Such a multitude of people had perished that a severe shortage of labor ensued which improved wages and living conditions for urban and rural workers. While these economic changes were permanent in some regions, in other areas the nobility and landowners successfully maintain the status quo. For example, in England when peasants attempted to take advantage of the favorable new conditions for workers after the plague, an assortment of peasants forces the King Richard II to meet with the rebels and agree to their stipulations. Yet, as soon as he was strong enough, Richard went back on his word and the peasant….

Laborers began to demand a wage for their efforts, which led to the rise of a money-based economy as opposed to the earlier land-based economy (middle-ages.org).
Europeans in the middle ages tended to be superstitious in their religious beliefs. As they searched for something or someone to blame for the wrath of the plague, all of their praying and blind faith did not protect them from being infected.

Comets, earthquakes, astrological configurations and the sin of humankind were all examined as possible causes. Interestingly, as Christians watched as their cardinals, bishops, priests and other clergy fall dead, just as vulnerable as anyone else, the religious strength of the feudal structure began to decline, as well. It is thought that these events may have ignited the Protestant Reformation (Uretsky). Johannes Nohl, in his vivid chronicles of the black plague, sums up its effects on feudalism, saying:

The experience incorporated in these graphic representations….

Black Death in 14th Century Europe
Pivot Point In History

causes and effects in history

20/20 HISTORICAL HINDSIGHT

The Black Death of the middle 14th Century in Europe was a major pivot point in History. Three ways it was a turning point can be seen through social hierarchy, the Roman Catholic Church and Medicine. Social hierarchy, the Church and Medicine were all different before the Black Death, they all failed during the Black Death, and they were all changed after the Black Death. The Black Death's impact on them makes it a major pivot point in History. In addition, the Black Death became a cause of significant effects: it changed Social hierarchy the Church and Medicine due to the devastating impact of the disease.

The Black Death viewed through 20/20 historical hindsight would also have been treated differently. At the time of the Black Death, Medicine knew nothing about bacteria and leaned toward spiritual/magical explanations….

14th Century Western Civilization
Social Criticism on a Patriarchal and Christian Society in Giovanni occaccio's "The Decameron"

Western civilization during the 14th century is characteristically considered as the "rebirth" of Greek and Roman cultures, which have declined after its glorious classical and Golden Age revolution during the Middle Ages. This 'rebirth' is referred to as the Renaissance movement, which are the revival of classical cultures and the emergence of the humanist movement. Italy, in particular, had become the cradle of human development of the Renaissance period, which brought about individualism, humanism, religious revolution (or reform), and the Scientific Revolution. In the midst of these developments, Giovanni occaccio, famous Italian writer and humanist, depicts life during the Renaissance movement and the lack Death, where European nations, particularly Italy, was ravaged and reduced in population. The lack Death was the result of a deadly plague caused by infected rodents that came from the Middle….

Black Death and its impact on Western Civilization
Black Death and Religion

The Black Death adversely impacted the reputation of the Catholic Church since its own adherents (including clergy) were ill and dying and the Church proved impotent to cure them. This feeling of disillusionment towards the church was reinforced by oen of the theories of its transmission that speculated that it was disseminated through the air by way of "miasma' (otherwise known as " bad air). The fact that the Church could not annihilate this bad air, caused distrust in the powers of the Church. As a result, people went to either extreme. They either flagellated themselves (e.g. The religious group called the Flagellants who traveled from town to town whipping themselves in imitation of Jesus' Crucifixion) and burned and killed others (such as Jews) to atone for their sins, or they indulged in excesses of hedonism. The general feeling….

One of the most significant economic consequences affected the feudal system in that "whole villages vanished in the wake of the plague" (Craig 430). As death struck every area of life that meant that there would less people to take care of every day business and an increased need for physicians. The labor supply decreased while wages for labor increased. Many serfs replaced their "labor services with money payments or abandoned the farm altogether for jobs in the cities" (430). The aristocrats were willing to take wealth at every opportunity with the decline of the feudal system. More and more the feudal system became a lose-lose situation, paving the way for reconstruction. ith many positions in the community left open by the dead, opportunities arose for those less likely to otherwise move up in the community. In other words, those that were left behind could pick and choose what….

As feudalism altered, it changed many other aspects of change and social standing. A historian notes, "As you move away from feudalism, the lord stops eating with everybody and goes to a private chamber and eats with his family, creating the beginnings of family life as opposed to courtly life. And houses change to reflect that the halls shrink and eventually disappear" (Sargent 2007, 114). There were slightly greater opportunities for women after the epidemic, too. There was such a shortage of labor; many women began working, mostly in the textile and beer brewing areas. Therefore, everything from the size of housing, to family life also altered after the plague, and eventually that would lead society from feudalism to capitalism, one of the biggest changes of all.
Because of the Black Death, the prices of goods were higher and food prices lower, the nobles were making less money. They wanted….

lack Death
An Analysis of the Impact of the lack Death on Western Society

The Western civilization into which the lack Death made itself known in the middle of the 14th century was itself about to come to the brink of a massive shakeup in terms of religion, politics, and economics. To what extent did the lack Death facilitate the change that would deconstruct Christendom, end the Medieval "age of faith," and effect the modern world? Considering that a number of circumstances, political, economical, social, and spiritual, played a part in the redefining of Europe, it is with some hesitation that one gives to the lack Death more importance that it is due. However, one must not marginalize the effects and impact of the disease: after all, it came at a time when the King of France had shown his hand against the See of Peter -- the ishop of Rome --….

hen we look back at the rapid spread of the disease and the dramatic impact it had throughout Europe, we must remember that neither of these circumstances would have been possible without the existence of a well-established regional and intercontinental trade network. The disease quite literally used these routes to its own advantage, spreading quickly from one urban center to the next, killing tens of millions of people in only a few short years.
Obviously, the virulence of the Black Death and the lack of knowledge regarding disease spread were major factors in the devastating effects of the disease in 14th century Europe. Had it been less fatal or medical science more advanced, the effects might not have been as grave. However, the most important factor that facilitated the spread of the disease and its rapid reduction of Europe's population was the rapid trade routes -- especially those by sea….

A historical turning point, as well as a vast human tragedy, the Black Death of 1346-53 is unparalleled in human history" (2005, 43).
The impact of the Black Death on the majority of the social structures of European society was also profound but actually had some beneficial outcomes for the less affluent members of society. For instance, because there were fewer people available, employers were compelled to increase wages and the frequently brutal feudal system that had characterized life for the majority of the European population went the way of the wind just as the Black Death. As one historian emphasizes, "In the aftermath of the social earthquake triggered by the Eurasian epidemic, a revised social landscape was fashioned. The disasters of the Black Death and the awe-inspiring recession of the mid-fourteenth century & #8230; [were] a spectacle of this disintegration, this headlong tumble into darkness -- the greatest drama….

TheBlackDeathPlagueinChinainthe1300sThecauseoftheblackdeathwasonlyrecentlyhypothesizedandproventobetheYersiniapestiswithscientificadvancementmadeinthe18thand19thcenturies.ThepandemicthatwipedouttheChinesepopulationfrom120to60millionpeopleisnowrecognizedasthebubonicplague.Inthe19thcentury,theepidemicsthatriddledAsia,theMiddleEast,andEuropewereattributedtotheBubonicPlaguebetween1347and1670.[footnoteRef:1]TheancientmedicinethatwaspracticedinChina,wheretheplaguehadadevastatingimpactonthepopulation,wasstillrudimentalandstemmedfromtheculturalpracticesandtheadvancementsinmedicinemadebyAristotleandHippocratesinthe4thcentury[footnoteRef:2].TheoriginsoftheplagueweretracedtoSiberiaandMongolia.Thisstudywillexplorethepathology,spread,thesocio-economicandpoliticalimpactofthebubonicplague,includingareviewoftheblackdeathinChina.[1:Duncan,"WhatCausedtheBlackDeath?."315.][2:Legan,"TheMedicalResponsetoTheBlackDeath,"25.]PathologyTheblackdeathwasaresultofavarietyofbacteriathatfallundertheYersiniapestisclassification.TheoriginofthebacteriaisnotknowntobetheMongolianSteppesaround1331.Between1347and1350,thebacteriahadspreadacrossAsia,Europe,andNorthAfrica.[footnoteRef:3]Thebacteriatypicallyliveinthestomachofratfleasandmightalsoliveinthestomachofthehumanflea.Thebacteriablockthedigestionoftheflea,andasthefleafeeds,theyregurgitatethebacteriafromtheirstomachsintotheirvictim[footnoteRef:4].Thebacteria,Y.pestis,pointofentryintothehumanbodyistheskinbreakage,butaccessintothehumanislimitedifonesskinishealthy.Sincerodentsinfestedwithfleasarethemaincarriersofthebacteria,suchasmarmots,tarbagons,andsusliksinAsia,andwerevirtuallyineveryhouseholdinthe14thtothe16thcentury,wouldattackhumanbeingsaftertheyranoutofrodenthosts.Therefore,humanswerevictimsofepizooticdisease.[3:JedwabandKoyama,NegativeShocksandMassPersecutions:EvidencefromTheBlackDeath,5.][4:Legan,6.]Thesurvivalconditionsintheabsenceofrodenthostsforayearareactivebetween59and68?Fwithhumiditybetween90%and95%.Wherehumiddropsbelow70%,therodentfleas(Xenopsyllacheopis)areunlikelytosurvive.[footnoteRef:5]Thisexplainswhytheplagueandtheblackdeathwereexperiencedatlethalratesduringlatesummerandearlyinthespringwhentheclimaticconditionsweresuitableforthefleas.Whentherodentpopulationwouldincreaseduetofoodavailability,thebubonicplacewouldsurfaceagain.[footnoteRef:6]Oncethepopulationofrodentsdecreased,thebacteria,Y.pestis,wouldsurviveintherodentsburrowsforprolongperiodssincetheyaredarkandmoist.Onceanewpopulationofrodentswouldmoveintothesecaves,theywouldbeinfected,leadingtoanewepidemic.Asaresult,theblackdeathinChinawasnotduetoacyclicoccurrenceofepidemicsthatmadethediseasemorefatalthanitsvirulencealoneandexplainedthepopulationcatastropheoftheblackdeath.[5:Legan,"TheMedicalResponsetoTheBlackDeath,6.Duncan,"WhatCausedtheBlackDeath?"315.Wheelis,"BiologicalWarfareatthe1346SiegeofCaffa."][6:]VariantsofthePlagueThebubonicplaguehadthreemainvariants,septicaemic,pneumonic,andbubonic.ThevariantsoftheplagueoccurredindifferentregionsacrossEurope,theMiddleEast,andAsia.[footnoteRef:7]Thebubonicplaguehadbeenthemostcommonandrecurrentformoftheplague.Thebubonicplaguehadanincubationperiodofsizedaysandwouldbefollowedbytheappearanceofablackishgangrenouspustuleonthesiteoftheskinwherethevictimwasbitbytheflea.Anothersymptomthatwouldfollowwastheswellingoflymphnodesintheneck,groin,andarmpitregion,dependingonwhichlocationwastheclosesttothelocationofthebite.[footnoteRef:8]Asthediseaseadvanced,asubcutaneoushemorrhagingwouldbegin,eventuallycausingtheswellinganddevelopmentofpurplehintedorblackblotchesinthelymphaticnodes,thus,thenameBlackDeath.Thehemorrhagingwouldcauseintoxicationandneurosisofthenervoussystemresultinginpsychologicalandneurologicaldisorders.[footnoteRef:9]Thebubonicvariantvictimswouldoftenhavediarrhea,committing,andpneumonia.Thebubonicplaguehada50%to60%fatalityrateamongtheinfected.[7:][8:Legan,"TheMedicalResponsetoTheBlackDeath,"7.Duncan,"WhatCausedtheBlackDeath?"317.Duncan,317.][9:Legan,5.]TheSepticaemicvariantoftheplaguewastherarestandmosthazardousvariantoftheplague.Likethebubonicplague,thisvariantwastransmittedbyfleas,X.cheopis,ratherthanfrompersontoperson.Thisvariantoccurredwhenavictimsbloodstreamwassaturatedwiththebacteriabutonlyforseveralhours.Duetothehighfatalityrateofthebacteria,thevictimwouldsuccumbtothisvariantbeforeanyofthesymptomsidentifiedinthebubonicvariantoftheplagueemerged,suchasimperfectionsinthelymphaticglands.[footnoteRef:10]Notably,theconcentrationofbacteriainthebloodstreamofthevictimwassaturated.Whenahumanfleabitaninfectedperson,itwouldcontractthebacteriaandtransmittootherpeoplewhowouldlaterbeitshost.Inthisform,thehumanflea,Cortophylusfasciatus,wasthemainwaytheviruswastransferredamonghumans.[10:]Thepneumonicplaguewastheonlyvariantofthecontagiousplagueandwoulddirectlybetransmittedfromoneindividualtoanother.[footnoteRef:11]Afterthebacteriasincubationperiodofthebacteria,Y.pestis,thebodytemperaturewoulddropfortwotothreedays,followedbyseverecoughing.Theinfectionwouldattackthelungscausingconsolidationfollowedbyadischargeofbloodysputum.Thecoughwouldresultinthedispersalofthebacteriaintotheair.Further,thesputumhadbacteriaaswellthatincreasedtherateoftransmissionofthecontagiousdisease.Aftertheattackofthelungs,thevictimwouldsufferneurologicalchallengesandacoma.[footnoteRef:12]ThePneumonicvarianthadafatalityrateof95to100%.[11:][12:Duncan,"WhatCausedtheBlackDeath?"317.Wheelis,"BiologicalWarfareatthe1346SiegeofCaffa."]MigrationandSpreadoftheBubonicPlagueOneoftheearliestaccountsoftheblackdeathwasbyGabrieledeMussi,whopracticednotaryinthecityofPiacenzabetween130001349.HisnotarywasmainlyonthetradeprevalentinCaffa(nowFeodosija,Ukraine)duetothe1266agreementbetweenGenoaandKahnoftheGoldenHorde.TheaccountsmainlycoveredthetradeinthemainportforthegreatGenoeseconnectedbytheDonRivertothecoastalshippingindustrytoTanaincentralAsia.Whilemostofhisaccountswerelost,oneofhisaccountswhichapproximatelydates1367,documentedthatInthenameofGod,Amen.Herebeginsanaccountofthediseaseormortalitywhichoccurredin1348,puttogetherbyGabrielemdeMussisofPiacenza.TheaccountbeginswithanapocalypticaccountofthedepravityofhumanbeingsintheeasterncountriesanddiseasethatclearedoutthepopulationasretributionbyGod.In1346,inthecountriesoftheEast,countlessnumbersofTartarsandSaracenswerestruckdownbyamysteriousillnessthatbroughtsuddendeath.Withinthesecountriesbroadregions,far-spreadingprovinces,magnificentkingdoms,cities,towns,andsettlements,grounddownbyillnessanddevouredbydreadfuldeath,weresoonstrippedoftheirinhabitants.[footnoteRef:13][13:]WhileGenoawasdistantfromtheepicenterofthebubonicplague,thenarrativesofthedestructionitcausedintheCaritaswhereitbeganwereevidentincosmopolitanandportcitiesasaccountedbydeMussi.CurrentaccountsoftheBlackDeathbeganwithJ.F.C.Hecker,aGermanmedicalhistorian,inanextendedessayin1832thatbrandedthefourteenth-centurypandemic.Heckersaccountheldwasamedievalchronicleofconsequencesofapestilence,thatextendedfromChinatoIcelandandGreenland.[footnoteRef:14]Notably,thisaccountwasinformedbythegeographicalspreadoftheplaguefromtheChinesetownstoGreekwherehewasaresident.Hisaccounttracedthepestilencetoanorientalplaguethatemergedfromthebubblingcauldronofadversaries,suchasfamine,floods,drought,locusts,collapsingmountains,earthquakes,andepidemicsinChinathatbegunin1333.[14:Wheelis,"BiologicalWarfareatthe1346SiegeofCaffa."]TheclimaticchangesduringthesetimesarealsoobservedinhisaccountasacorecontributortothespreadandtheinfectionofthehumanpopulationwiththeY.pestisbacteria.Duetothedeclineinthepopulationoftherodentpopulation,theratfleasattackedthehumanpopulation,resultinginanincreaseintheinfectionofthehumanpopulationwiththebacteria.[footnoteRef:15]Therefore,themiasmatictheoryofdiseaseisamorefeasibleexplanationoftheblackdeaththanthegermtheory.HeckersaccountviewsthemovementoftheplaguefromtheEasttoWestasaconsequenceofprogressiveinfectionoftheZonesonandbeneaththeearthssurfaceratherthanasachainofcontagion.[15:WelfordandBossak,"ValidationofInverseSeasonalPeakMortalityinMedievalPlagues,IncludingtheBlackDeath,InComparisontoModernYersiniaPestis-VariantDiseases,"1177.]ThefourteenthcenturywitnessedasteeptrajectoryintradebetweenEurope,NorthAfrica,andAsia.Astradegrew,thesettlementpatternsbegantochangeasmorepopulationbegantoassembleincosmopolitanareas.Asaresult,themovementoftradersinmerchantshipsbetweenthesethreecontinentscreatedchannels.[footnoteRef:16]Asestablished,thespreadofthediseasewasmainlyassociatedwiththemovementoftheratpopulationratherthanthecontagionamongpeople.Thespreadofinfectionamongpeoplewasonlylimitedtothepneumonicvariant.Asmerchantshipsdockedforloadingorloadingofcargo,theratsthatwerehoststothefleascarryingtheY.pestiswouldgetonboard.Theshippopulationwouldgetinfectedwiththebacteriaandarriveattheirdestinationwithaninfectedcrew.Theratswouldgetofftheboardduringloadingactivitiesandthedockingactivitiesandinfecttherodentspopulationinthesenewlocations.Duetothehighpopulationinthecompliantareas,thelocalpopulationwouldalsobesuccumbingtothenewbubonicplague.[footnoteRef:17]Asaresult,thepopulationsthatweremostaffectedbythediseasewerethosewiththemostcommercialactivity.Forexample,thecargowasferriedfromGenoaandVenicethroughtheMediterraneanandtotheAsian,western,andnorthernEuropeanports.TheroutesassociatedwiththespreadofthediseaseweretheSilkRoadandtheMuslimpilgrimageroutes.Figure1showsthetraderoutesandtheareasthatexperiencedblackdeathinlargenumbers.[16:Wood,FerrellandDewitte-Avia,"TheTemporalDynamicsofTheFourteenth-CenturyBlackDeath:NewEvidencefromEnglishEcclesiasticalRecords."344.][17:WelfordandBossak,"ValidationofInverseSeasonalPeakMortalityinMedievalPlagues,IncludingTheBlackDeath,InComparisonToModernYersiniaPestis-VariantDiseases."]Figure1:Traderoutesandcitiesthatwerepertinenttothespreadofthebubonicplague.[footnoteRef:18][18:"Chapter11TheBlackDeathA14ThCenturyPlague."]TheaccountofthespreadofthebubonicplagueinAsiaandtheEuropeancountriesiscomplementarytothechronologicalaccountofhistoricalevents.InChina,theoutbreakofthebubonicplagueisbelievedtohavehappenedinthe1320s.TheProvinceofHubeiwasthefirstcitywherethefirstoutbreakhappenedin1334.[footnoteRef:19]TheMongolruleinthe1334ssoughtpeacefultradewithEurope,theMiddle….

Jean De Venette and the Black Death
This document is a short excerpt from The Chronicle, a first-hand account of historical events in Paris between 1340 and 1368 written by a Carmelite friar named Jean de Venette. Though of humble birth, de Venette eventually rose to become prior of Place Maubert, a Carmelite convent in Paris. His Chronicle provides first-hand accounts of numerous important events in French history including the Black Death, a series of pandemics that ravaged Europe during the mid-fourteenth century. This document demonstrates that at least some contemporary observers explained the Black Death in both religious and astrological terms. In other words, while this excerpt reinforces the stereotypical view of the medieval world as superstitious and ignorant, it nevertheless nuances this view by demonstrating that many individuals mixed Christian and other supernatural explanations for catastrophic events like the Black Death. Finally, this paper will demonstrate that de Venette's….

However, the reasons why people commit crime are as different as the individuals themselves. Intentional murder comes in two different flavors. The first is the carefully plotted, well thought out, planned act. In this scenario, motivational theory takes over. The person must feel that they will gain some type of value from the action. It may be that they gain something, such as money, or they may feel that eliminating a person will offer them some type of protection. In any case, the person justifies their actions through a perceived reward in the future (Horisch and Strassmair).
In the case of an intentional murder, the death penalty may deter the action. However, several conditions must be met for the fear of death to act as a deterrent. The person must feel that there is a significant possibility that they will be caught and punished for their crimes. In many cases,….

"
The Aftermath

Uncle Tom characters were common in both white and black productions of the time, yet no director before Micheaux had so much as dared to shine a light on the psychology that ravages such characters. By essentially bowing to the two white men, Micheaux implied that Old Ned was less than a man; an individual whittled down to nothing more than yes-man and wholly deprived of self-worth. At this point in the history of black films, with some of the most flagrant sufferings of blacks exposed to the American public, the only logical path forward that African-Americans could take was to begin making cogent demands to improve their collective social situation.

Slowly, black characters in film took on greater and more significant roles in film. Sidney Poitier was one of the most powerful film stars of the mid twentieth century. In roles like the 1950 film by director Joseph L.….