Effects Of Stress Essays (Examples)

stress on Kidneys and esistance phone of GAS

Effects of stress on Kidneys and esistance phase of GAS

Biology

Stress is an emotional or physical strain normally caused as a result to the tension or pressure from the outside world. Some of the most prominent reactions to stress include tension, agitation, increased heart beat and lack of concentration. Although, it is inevitable to lead a life without stress still there are ways in which this situation can be controlled. (Health Information Publications 2002-11). This research essay aims to delineate the affects of stress on the renal system. It seeks to explain the physiological activities of the kidney under normal homeostatic conditions, and what may occur in the kidneys when the body is experiencing the resistance phase of the general adaptive syndrome

STESS AND THE GAS

A human brain works in mysterious ways. It can regulate functions throughout the body, without…

Understandability of Controlled Burn: The Gendering of Stress and Burnout in Modern Policing Results
The results presented in the article are understandable because the authors have presented the result in a well detailed and formulated manner. The article has clearly indicated a number of factors that are directly associated with law enforcement. The authors have also identified some of the major causes of stress and burnout to police officers. By categorizing the factors according to gender, the authors have shown how different factors have an impact on different individuals. For example, it has been shown that women are more stressed when they hear they have to undergo internal investigations as compared to men. Presenting data in this manner makes it easy for any reader to understand and differentiate how various factors would impact individuals based on gender (LoBiondo-Wood, 2014). There have also been differences noted based on race. African Americans…

From these responses will be generated the even more specific and in-depth questions that will used to obtain a more complete picture from the focus group.

The focus group, as mentioned above, will be composed of five students from each of the three groups. That will provide the study with a big enough focus group to discern certain trends and by seeking a more in-depth knowledge of how the students feel about certain scenarios could be helpful in providing more insight into how different events are perceived by students from different backgrounds.

David L. Morgan writes in his book; Focus Groups as Qualitative esearch that "most rewarding...is the fact that focus groups are now a much more widely practiced research method within the social sciences" (p. vii).

Morgan continues by writing "there is a sizeable literature about focus groups in anthropology, communication studies, education, evaluation, nursing, political science, psychology, public…

Stress and Suicide in Law Enforcement Populations

The paper is an understanding of what stress could have on law enforcement officials. The factors which cause stress for law enforcement officials are varied ranging from personal life issues, the pressures of work, the public response towards police job, the entire criminal law system and the entire rules and procedures involved in the law system. If this stress is not alleviated then the officers start reacting in negative ways. The biggest stress on most police officers is suicide. The numbers of police officers that face death by committing suicide are very high when compared to those who are killed when they are on duty. During 1934 and 1960 the suicide rates of the police officers were nearly half of the general population. But then from 1980 to the current date this situation has changed so drastically that the death rates as to…

Stress disorders, the stress is so great that it is debilitating and dominates the person and interferes with living one's life. Stress can be good or bad. A skiing champion described how stress helped him perform his best, but a Viet Nam War veteran describes how horrific things he had seen haunted him and intruded into his mind, while awake and while asleep.

Our bodies show clear responses to stress. We perspire, breath quicker, heartbeat rises, and muscles tense for action. WE may also turn pale, or get "goose bumps," or feel sick to the stomach. Stress can trigger anxiety problems. In stressful situations, the brain triggers a variety of body-function changes. The sympathetic nervous system rallies body functions for fight 0r flight; the parasympathetic nervous system restores us to normal functioning.

One of the most devastating of the stress disorders is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It makes sense to…

The responses will be tabulated into data sheet that exhibit the participants ease of remembering that facts. The coding will produce levels which showing the proportionate ability to remember.

The data will then be input in a statistical program to give distributions and this will be subjected to a T-test to assess their significance level at 5%. The decision rule will be such that reject the null hypotheses if probability of occurrence of the distribution observed is less than 5%.

Implication of the esults

If the expected that the results show higher probability that the stress among older women it implies that, older women are susceptible forget and thus have a higher likelihood of encountering Alzheimer's condition. On the centrally if we reject the Null hypothesis -- failure to support the hypothesis -- it will imply that age and stress have nothing to do with memory lose and that it…

Stress on Human Memory and Cognitive Capabilities

Types of Stresses on Short-Term Memory

Symptoms of Short-Term Memory

Stress weakens a human's ability to be able to pass proper chemicals through the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier is an assemblage of blood vessels that defends the brain from toxins that circulate through one's body (Franklin Institute, 2004).

Evidence of stress on the short-term memory includes difficulty to learn new things, dizziness, headaches, and nausea (Franklin Institute, 2004).

Effects of Stress on Short-Term Memory

When stress takes place in the human body, hormones are released that divert blood glucose from the brain's hippocampus (Franklin Institute, 2004).

The lack of energy that is provided by the lost glucose creates the hippocampus to become concerned about the lack of energy. This fright causes an inability to create accurate new memories (Franklin Institute, 2004).

This can be a result o a onetime traumatic event in…

Nutrition and Stress

Stress affects eating habits by causing a person to exhibit patterns of disordered eating (Khansari, et al., 1990). Some people will choose to eat too much, and others will eat too little (Seaward, n.d.). Additionally, it is not just the amount of food a person is taking in, but the type of food that is being consumed. Comfort foods are commonly seen in the eating habits of people who are stressed, even if the person would not normally consume those foods or would not eat them as often (Khansari, et al., 1990). When a person is experiencing stress, though, he or she unconsciously reaches for foods that bring psychological comfort, and that can actually cause more harm to the body. It is very important that a person under stress focuses on eating properly, such as having three meals per day, eating only appropriate snacks, and avoiding a…

Managing Stress Exercise

Managing Stress through Physical Exercise

hat is the importance of flushing stress hormones out of the body according to Seaward? hat are the specific effects of physical exercise on managing and preventing stress?

During a period of exercise, the body is responding to stress hormones the way it was intended to. Stress hormones on the body generally prompt something of a fight or flight trigger. Using exercise to burn out the energy caused by the stimulus to the stress can be an effective method of dealing with stress. Exercise has been shown to reduce the level of cortisol in the body and even effect mood. Exercise attacks stress in two ways, according to Matthew Stults-Kolehmainen, Ph.D., a kinesiologist at the Yale Stress Center (Menlinck, 2013):

He says "that raising one's heart rate can actually reverse damage to the brain caused by stressful events: "Stress atrophies the brain…

Health Psychology Stress ManagementStress is a term that refers to the physical and emotional adaptive reaction to external situations that generate psychological, behavioral, or psychological deviations (Hailu, 2020). Stress is brought by various factors relating to the experiences of daily life. As a result, individuals need to develop stress management techniques to learn to cope with stress and mitigate its impacts on physical and emotional health and wellbeing. Students in secondary schools and higher learning institutions are increasingly exposed to a series of ongoing normative stressors relating to daily academic demands (Pascoe, Hetrick & Parker, 2019). Academic-related stress affects the health and wellbeing of these students as well as lessens academic performance, increases the risk of school dropout, and decreases motivation. While numerous stress management techniques and behaviors exist, the impact of stress management behaviors on academic-related stress remains unknown. This study seeks to address the gap in existing…

Stress in Law Enforcement

Stress and Law Enforcement

Professionals of law enforcements are responsible for some crucial and informative decision-making in their offices and fields which requires a standard operating procedures or codes to find the solutions of many issues. This procedure may look simple at first glance, but it can easily build up stress due to unpredictable situations and add up of infinite variables of the general public. Law enforcement officials have been expected to sustain discipline and remain neutral during the attempt of solving disputes safely. Physical and mental stress takes toll when professionals are observed by public and constantly stay under surveillance. Physical danger linked with work performance is the highest stress triggered (Bennett and Hess, 2007).

There are many forms of stress which vary according to the sources and the personal responses linked with it. Stress is usually categorized as acute and chronic stress and further…

Stress

Wiley, Carolyn. 2000. "A Synthesis of Research on the Causes, Effects, and Reduction Strategies of Teacher Stress." Journal of Instructional Psychology, June.

Carolyn Wiley wrote an extensive review of the research on occupational stress as it applies to one specific group -- teachers. Many of her cites are older, one going back as far as 1938, which suggests she did a very thorough job of going through the literature. To emphasize the effects of stress over time on the body, she refers to a pathologist who asserts that people don't die of "old age:" they die because one body system gave out, causing a cascade of events leading to death, and that stress over time is the likely cause of the first system's collapse.

She also makes the point that we cannot avoid stress in life, but that teachers experience significant levels of stress. She classifies stress into four…

Stress in the Workplace

The research topic under discussion is Stress at Workplace. Stress comes with different definitions, one of which is that stress is a 'physical, chemical or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension.' Emotional stress relates to job burnout, tension and strain and many scholars have called it a psychological process and linked it with the individual and the situation that he is in (American Psychological Association, 2009). The global economy has become very competitive and demands a lot of work from the employees which puts a lot of pressure on them. These increased expansions and demands of the traditional workplace have put a lot more pressure on the workers (Lokk & Arnetz, 1997; Soylu and Campbell, 2012).

The International Labor Organization and World Health Organization have recognized many different effects of stress that are harmful to the person. These effects include physical problems, psychological problems,…

Stress affects children in many ways. From lacking confidence to developing eating disorders, to becoming antisocial, stress can take a toll on a child. Developing within an environment of stress and upheaval generates a sense of instability within children. When they are older, they may seek that stability or sense of stability in harmful activities or people. A good example of this is a child experiencing abuse at an early age and then marrying someone that abuses him or her.

The impact of stress on children can be great and often generates long-term side effects. Depression, personality disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, eating disorders, psychiatrists find these kinds of mental health problems frequently in children experiencing chronic stress. Some may not even appear from abuse, but rather from trying to please their parents and the people around them. Over achieving children may feel chronic stress because people expect him or her to…

Stress eduction & Workplace Wellness Program

Online Mindfulness-Based Stress eduction (MBS)

This is a 100% free online MBS training course, developed by a fully licensed MBS tutor, and modelled based on the Jon Kabat-Zinn program founded at the Medical school of Massachusetts University. The people the program targets are those that cannot take live MBS courses for either logistical or financial reasons. Each of the several materials utilized during the live course, which include videos and articles on meditation, are available online for free (MBS, N.D). The Workplace Wellness and Stress eduction Program has the ability to inculcate a change in business and professional culture. When both workers and employers learn effective ways to deal with stress, the long-term benefits in terms of cost reduction and increased productivity are quite numerous. Apart from minimizing stress, awareness and mindfulness training can also cultivate mental alertness, flexibility, resiliency, initiative, creativity and intuition,…

Stress Diary

Analyzing My Stress Diary

Maintaining a stress diary has been a most useful experience, as it has led to some valuable personal insights. Though I have been aware of experiencing somewhat high levels of anxiety off and on, accompanied by a feeling of being tied up in knots, I never really attempted to either consciously monitor the frequency of such episodes or try to resolve the problem. Until I started keeping a daily 'stress log' to record the frequency, causes, and my reactions to stressful events and situations.

The daily recording of my sources of stress has now helped me realize that my common stressors are the results of term papers that I have handed in, and the presence of a couple of people in my circle of friends. Reflecting on these causes, I have reached the conclusion that both my stressors are largely caused by anxiety over…

Adolescents with poor problem-solving skills are at greater risk of suicide, according to an article in the Journal of Clinical Psychology (Grover, et al., 2009). The authors concentrate on the problem of "chronic stress" in adolescents, saying it involves "deprivation or disadvantage" that is ongoing and those dynamics create a "continuous stream of threats and challenges" for the adolescent. The therapy in this research? Counselors, therapists, parents and teachers all need to help adolescents learn "well-developed problem-solving abilities" in order to "buffer the negative impact of both episodic and chronic stress…" (Grover, p. 1286).

Conclusion

Earlier in this paper it was asserted that up to 20% of adolescents in the U.S. will encounter some form of depression due to stress. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) suggests that the best treatment for severely depressed youths is a combination of psychotherapy and antidepressant medication; that formula works better than either…

Stress

Definition of stress

esearchers define stress as a physical, mental, or emotional response to events that causes bodily or mental tension. Simply put, stress is any outside force or event that has an effect on our body or mind. Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is thrilling and exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. Acute stress can be episodic or chronic.

Depending on the stressors and the types of changes or events, stress can manifest itself physically, emotionally and/or mentally. Physical stress occurs when the body as a whole starts to suffer as a result of a stressful situation. Symptoms can manifest in a variety of ways and vary in their seriousness. Emotional stress are responses due to stress affecting the mind…

Current training paradigms have been found to create to relationship between traditional handgun training, for example, and the necessity of using handguns in the line of duty itself. Indeed, the authors provide excellent literature support for the main focus of the work, which is to emphasize the general lack of adequate and realistic on-the-job training for police officers and military personnel. The literature review futhermore emphasize the effect of unusual stress not only on the cortisol levels, but also on the ability to learn from experience and effectively incorporate such learning experiences in the long-term. In other words, these learning experiences, when provided only during the work situation itself, create a dangerous situation for both officers of the law and those who share any physical vicinity with them.

The article therefore indicates that a vital component of military and police training, in terms of creating situations that simulate probably job…

Stress Factors in Law Enforcement

his brief paper will look at some of the issues and circumstances that create stress in the lives of law enforcement officers. In particular some chronic stressors will be examined that contribute to higher than normal rates of suicide, divorce and alcoholism in the profession.

here is little debate over the contention that law enforcement officers face inordinate amounts of stress during the course of their duties. For instance, police officers have one of the highest rates of suicide in the nation. While the national rate of divorce is approximately fifty percent, the divorce rate for police officers is between sixty and seventy percent and evidence indicates that alcohol abuse is about twice the rate of the general population (Haines, 2003).

Discussion

here are many programs available to deal with situations that produce acute stress, such as post shooting trauma. What is not as obvious…

Stress Factors

As we have learned throughout the course of our present studies, stress and anxiety disorders can render a debilitating effect for the subject. The incapacity to control stress, to limit the physiological or emotional panic produced by stressful situations or to go about one's daily life with functional normalcy are all factors which can magnify and intensify an already imposing condition. e proceed with the understanding that chronic stress and the failure to manage this effectively is known to contribute to a host of worsening conditions both physically and emotionally. Among them, our research denotes that poor stress management can lead to chronic illness, a host of psychosomatic symptoms, an array of real bodily responses relating to the body's chemical 'fight' or 'flight' mechanism, and most importantly to our discussion, an intensifying experience of one's psychological symptoms. This is true even to the extent that poor stress management…

Stress Among Police

Stress among the police

Stress among the police force

Police workforce remains an environment that is highly stressful being an occupation that a person has to deal with physical dangers and risking their lives any time they are working. esearch indicates that the prevalent stress warning signs that need to deal with immediately they appear are sudden behavior changes in behavior, erratic work behavior, increase of sick time because of minor problems, failure to preserve a train of thought, and extreme worrying. There are many ways, which departments in the police force can deal with stressing the police force. The first mechanism is provision of stress management initiatives to both offices and their spouses. There is a need for identification of officers under stress and offer them counseling to assist in alleviating their stress. Periodic screenings as well as training concentrating on stress management is necessary.

Confidential…

227), creating a house-full of stress and tension.

Another study delves into how much children "matter" to their stepparents -- because "to matter is to be noticed, to be an object of concern, and to be needed by a specific individual" (Schenck, et al., 2009, p. 71). The authors posit that when children "feel secure and accepted in their parental relationships, they feel less threatened by stressful events" (p. 71). This study, published in the journal Fathering, involved 133 adolescents in stepfather families. The child participants were in 7th grade at the outset of the research; the end result of the research concluded, "mattering to both fathers [stepfather and biological father] was significantly related to adolescents' mental health problems" (Schenck, p. 84). Further, it was found (through teacher interviews) that when a child "mattered" to the stepfather the child was more apt to "externalize" his problems, which reduces stress and…

The third type of response is the prolonged response also referred to as chronic stress which is a response to a trigger that is unrelenting or repetitive that can be caused by work related situation, the domestic stress, unsolved financial stress and such prolonged triggers.

Stress, if not checked can be harmful to the individual but also the immediate family or those living around the victim. Hence, there is absolute need to tackle stress as soon as it shows signs as discussed above. These responses may include though not restricted to; a) Talking about it, this should be encouraged. The victim should talk about it with the family members, friends, colleagues, counselor etc. b). Taking a break, which may include going to a place one rarely goes to or doing some activities they rarely do but enjoy, it may also involve indulging in picnics or long travel holidays, engaging in…

According to a 2002 survey conducted under the auspices of NIH, ecstasy abuse among college and university students in general is a widespread trend that impedes academic performance (Bar-on, 2002). The NIH survey targeted 66 4-year American universities and colleges alike. The projected findings indicated a diminishing trend in undergraduate academic performance amongst students who indulge in binge drinking and abuse ecstasy in the process. Elsewhere, a Harvard College drug study indicated persistent drug users were more likely to miss lectures and delay in their coursework than the average student (Montgomery & Fisk, 2008).

A parallel IP esearch dubbed "Predictors of academic achievement and retention among college freshmen" projected that while certain students manage to cope with the new life role upon entering college, a good number of students flunk out of college before completing their freshman year. According to this research, 75% of the freshman drop out is related…

Pressure on Performance

The Effects of Time Pressure and Performance Pressure on the Ability to Solve Anagrams in College Students.

Anxiety and stress have been demonstrated to affect test performance and cognitive performance. Previous research has suggested that anxiety interferes with test performance by means of cognitive interference. Often, especially in individuals with high levels of test anxiety, stress leads to anxiety which leads to inattention, self-absorption, and focus on self-evaluation rather than on task-relevant behaviors. Stress is most often induced by a high pressure environment and can vary from situation to situation. The purpose the current study is to examine whether stress induced from a high pressure environment negatively affects testing performance. The current study investigated the effects of time pressure (being timed) and performance pressure (being evaluated) on the ability of college students to solve anagrams. It was hypothesized that pressure would lead to stress that would result…

Arousal, Behavior, Stress and Affect:

Differences between Physiological and Psychological Needs:

While human beings share some simple requirements for sustaining life and health, these needs are always confused with wishes, desires and wants. Human needs can therefore be defined as the basic requirements for health and well-being which is both physiological and psychological in nature. In order for a person to remain healthy, his/her physiological and psychological needs should be satisfied. Actually, these needs are inter-connected since they both work together for the purposes of life and well-being. When each of these needs is fulfilled, it fosters integration and well-being while promoting fragmentation and ill-being when it's not fulfilled. Human physiological needs are defined as those needs that are required for the sustenance and growth of a healthy body while psychological needs are those that are required for the sustenance and growth of a healthy mind. Whereas examples of physiological…

Our findings show that social and psychological aspects of work situations are indeed significant risk factors for coronary heart disease, but not in the manner that might initially be supposed. While the psychological demands of work, along with time pressures and conflicts, are found to be significant sources of risk in many of our studies, work that is demanding (within limits) is not the major source of risk. The primary work-related risk factor appears to be lack of control over how one meets the job's demands and how one uses one's skills. In many cases, elevation of risk with a demanding job appears only when these demands occur in interaction with low control on the job. Other research has shown that regular physical exertion has positive effects on cardiovascular health in many situations (although physical hazards can of course pose major health threats beyond our stress perspective). Thus, in our…

It was found that academic exam stress caused significant increases in P and TAI scores, which were related to high levels of serum, significantly more so in males than females, who only had an increase in serum sgp130 when taking birth control drugs. Males were found to have significantly more serum sCD8. The results suggest that psychological stress induces immune-inflammatory changes with complex regulatory responses in IL-6 signaling, decreased anti-inflammatory capacity of serum and interactions with T-cell and monocytic activation. The results of this study also suggest that sex hormones may modify stress-induced immune-inflammatory responses (ong et al. p. 293).

Anxiolytic drugs of the benzodiazepine class and other drugs that affect catecholamine, GABAA, histamine and serotonin receptors, alter the stress response and regulate stress hormone secretion. It has been shown that exposure to hostile conditions induces lowered immune system and cardiovascular responses, as well as neural circuits and neurotransmitter system…

The stress alarm, therefore, can actually assist the employee to improve her performance and is necessary especially, if positive perceptions regarding the challenges of the work environment exist. The response to the stress under the Cognitive Activation Theory of Stress, provided that the exceptions held by the employee are positive, is healthy and necessary for survival and productivity. Eriksen H.., Murison, ., Pensgaard, a.M., Ursin, H. (2005). Under this theory, emotional and physical health within the individual is sustained through a positive expectation for the outcomes, compliance with the expectations, or through resisting the stress altogether. Eriksen H.., Murison, ., Pensgaard, a.M., Ursin, H. (2005). A summary chart outlining these different theories on stress and their potential effects on the organization follows.

A Comparison of Theories of Stress and How They Affect Organizational Operations

Theory

Basic Concept

Basic eaction

Effect on the Organization

Fight or Flight

The stress produces physiological…

This occurs when people experience feelings of terror and helplessness during a trauma and then has recurrent flashbacks, nightmares, impaired concentration and emotional numbing afterwards. Some victims of this disorder turn to alcohol or other drugs which do nothing accept compound the problem. It is thought that approximately 10% of Americans have had or will have this disorder at some point in their lifetime (Carpenter and Huffman, 2008).

Since it seems evident that we can't escape stress, we need to learn how to effectively cope with it. There is not one single thing that must be done but a process that allows us to deal with various stressors. A person's level of stress depends on both their interpretation of and their reaction to stressors. Elimination of drug use and no more than moderate alcohol use are important in the successful management of stress. It is known that people, when stressed,…

The human stress response is influenced by a host of personality characteristics and life experiences that cannot be duplicated in animal studies. (Anisman & Merali, 1999, p. 241)

Because stressful stimuli often elicit cortisol secretion, some researchers have proposed the use of cortisol levels as an index of the stress response. (Anisman & Merali, 1999, p. 241)

esearchers have indicated that human and animal anxiety/stress profiles differ along cognitive behavioral lines. These findings are based on the idea that anxiety is understood as an affective (emotional) state in humans (Wall & Messier, 2001). esearch was conducted regarding stress utilizing hesus monkeys. The study uses a hormone Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which was injected into half of the pregnant hesus monkeys in the study. ACTH is secreted from the anterior pituitary in response to corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus. It is secreted in response to various types of stress. Blood samples were…

Prioritize. Try not to schedule too many things at once. In the words of one article by the health center at Colorado University entitled "10 Great Stress Reducers," learn to say 'no.' Also, learn to live within your budget. In other words, don't sweat the small stuff, and don't make yourself crazy by overcommitting yourself and leaving everything to the last minute. Ask yourself, do I need this? Do I have to do this?

Of course, no one can completely avoid stress in their life, and in fact, some forms of stress can be good. Lots of people like the positive, controlled stress of exercise or performing. There is a different 'perfect' balance of stress and relaxation for every person. But everyone can benefit from learning some ways to counteract the physical strains of being under stress. Stretching -- and stretching often, even simply rolling down your spine, touching your…

stress conjures up different things for different people, yet stress is a universal: everyone experiences stress throughout their life. Stress can be both good and bad depending on how it impacts the person who is experiencing the stress, and what other variables are present in the person's life at the time. Stress can result from positive happy events in people's lives, such as when a new baby is born. Stress can also result from negative contexts or conditions over which people do not have control. Some types of stress and some ways of responding to stress are associated with higher levels of disease. Naturally, on the flip side, some ways of responding to stress actually serve to reduce the stress and the negative impact that the stress has on the individual person. Regardless of what people would like to believe or deny, stress impacts every aspect of people's lives: emotional,…

…[…… parts of this paper are missing, click here to view or download the entire document ]…OccupationalStressandScientificMonitoringLiteratureeview2.1IntroductionThedefinitionofthetermoccupationalstressisderivedfromthedefinitionofitstwoconstituentwords.Inthiscontext,occupationalreferstoanythingthatisrelatedtotheworkplacewhilestressisdefinedasanaturalbodyreactionfromphysical,mentaloremotionalstraininanindividual.Thus,occupationalstresscanbedefinedasanymechanismbywhichthebodyattemptstoadapttotheworkplaceenvironment.Theseincludenormalmechanismsfordealingwithworkplacestress,commonlyknownasthefightorflightresponseaswellasanyexpectedorunexpectedreactionsinresponsetotheworkplace.Theseincludeeyestrainbecauseofstaringatcomputerscreensfortoolong,emotionalandphysicalstress,depression,anxiety,aggression,cognitiveimpairmentsuchasdegradedmemoryorreducedconcentrationspan,etc.Allofthesereactionscanleadtopoorworkoutput,increasedemployeeturnover,higherabsenteeism,cardiovasculardisease,injuryorevendeath(Pattersonetal.,2005).Occupationalstresscanalsobedefinedasahazardundertherelevantoccupationalsafetyandhealthlegislationthatcancauseanyharmtoemployeehealthandtowhichemployershaveadutyofcaretoassess,identifyandcontrolasmuchaspossible.Itcanalsobedefinedinotherwordsastheconsequenceofanindividualbeingunabletocopewithpressuresintheworkplace(ees,1997).Theseundesirableoutcomescomeabouteitherbecauseofpoorfitbetweenthepersonsabilitiesandtherequirementofhisorherpositionorbecauseofworkplaceconditionsbeingotherwiseunfavorable.Becausethewell-beingofemployeesisinextricablyassociatedwithorganizationalperformanceandproductivity,occupationalstressdemandstimelyinvestigationtoidentifywaystomitigatetheseeffects(OsibanjoandSalau,2016).AlthoughunemploymentlevelsintheUnitedStateshavesteadilydeclinedinrecentyears,therehasbeenacorrespondingincreaseintheamountofoccupationalstresslevelsbeingreportedbyAmericanworkers.AsurveysponsoredbyEverestCollegeandconductedbyHarrisInteractivefoundthatfully83%ofallemployedworkersintheUnitedStatesreportbeingstressedbyatleastonejob-relatedfactor(anincreasefrom73%forthepreviousyear),withinadequatepayandinordinatelyexcessiveworkloadsbeingamongthetopfactorsreportedbyU.S.workers(Workstressontherise,2013).Basedonthefindingsthatemergedfromthissurvey,JohnSwartz,theregionaldirectorofcareerservicesatEverestCollege,concludedthat,Morecompaniesarehiring,butworkersarestillwearyandstressedoutfromyearsofatroubledeconomythathasbroughtaboutlongerhours,layoffsandbudgetcuts(ascitedinWorkstressontherise,2013,p.3).Althoughagrowingbodyofresearchconfirmsthatpaylevelsarenolongeramongthemostmotivationalfactorsforworkers,compensationlevelsremainatornearthetopofjob-relatedstressorstoday.Inthisregard,theHarrisInteractivesurveyfoundthatinordinatelyheavyworkloadstiedwithinadequatecompensationlevelsasbeingthetopjobstressorsatpresent,andbothofthesevariablesshowedsignificantincreasesoverthepreviousyear(Workstressontherise,2013).Otherjob-relatedfactorsthatwerefoundtoexacerbateoccupationalstresslevelsincludedpoorrelationshipswithcoworkers,theamountoftimerequiredtocommutetoandfromwork,beingcompelledtoworkinacareerfieldthatisnotalignedwiththeirpersonalinterests,poorwork-lifebalancesandapaucityofcareeradvancementopportunities(Workstressontherise,2013).Itisalsonoteworthythatthereweresomesignificantgender-relateddifferencesintheoccupationalstresslevelsreportedbyAmericanworkers,withnearlytwiceasmanyfemaleworkersasmaleworkers(18%vs.10%)reportinginadequatepaylevelsastheirprimaryjobstressor(Workstressontherise,2013).Inaddition,youngerworkersweremorelikelythantheiroldercounterparts(i.e.,BabyBoomers)toreportbeingstressedasaresultoftheiremployment(Workstressontherise,2013).Insum,youngerAmericanwomen(aged18to29years)arethemoststressedatworkbutothercategoriesofworkersremainathighriskofoccupationalstressaswell(Workstressontherise,2013).Althougheveryoneexperiencesthenegativeandpositiveeffectsofoccupationalstressuniquely,therearesomecommontypesofstressthataretypicalresponsestounmitigatedworkplacestressasdiscussedbelow.2.2TypesofstressStressisthehumanresponsetoanytypesofdemand,andsuchresponsescanbeeitherpositiveornegative(Sharma,2015).Fromabiophysicalperspective,stresscanberegardedasbeingamental,physical,oremotionalresponsethatresultsinmentalorphysicaltension(Sharma,2015).Occupationalstresscanalsobedefinedastheadversepsychologicalandphysicalreactionsthatoccurinanindividualasaresultoftheirbeingunabletocopewiththedemandsbeingmadeonthem(Omolara,2008).Stressthathappensduetoaperson\\\'semploymentistermedoccupationalstress.Thetermsworkplacestress,jobstressandoccupationalstressareusedinterchangeably(Dollard,2003).egardlessofwhatitiscalled,occupationalstresslevelsarenotoriouslydifficulttoquantifyandmeasure,makingtheevaluationofstress-managementinterventionsespeciallyproblematic.Inresponse,researchershavedevelopedanumberofdifferentcategoriesofjobstressorstofacilitatetheprocessasdiscussedbelow.Jobstressorshavebeenclassifiedintovariouscategoriesbydifferentinvestigatorsovertheyears.Forexample,El-KotandBurkenotethatresearchersduringthesecondhalfofthe20thccenturyidentifiedfivediscretecategoriesofjobstressorsasfollows:(1)stressorsintrinsictothejob,(2)fromone\\\'sroleintheorganization,(3)careerdevelopment,(4)relationshipswithothers,and(5)organizationalstructureandculture.Otherresearchershaveidentifiedfourmaincategoriesofjobstressors:(1)fromtaskdemands,(2)roledemands,(3)physicaldemands(fromelementsinone\\\'sphysicalsettingorenvironment),and(4)interpersonaldemands;inadditionandmorerecently,work-familydemandshavealsobeenincludedinthecategoriesofjobstressorsbysomeorganizationalbehavioralresearchers(El-KotandBurke,2011).Moresuccinctly,aspositedbyNordstrometal.(2001),therearetwomajortypesofstressthatcanoccurinaperson.Thesearephysicalandmentalstress.Physicalstressreferstoanyphysicalreactionofthebodytowardvarioustriggers.Physicalstressisamajorcauseofemotionalstresssincethetwomanifestsineachother.Mentalstress,ontheotherhand,referstomentalexhaustion.AccordingtoKeegeletal.(2009),mentalstressreferstomentalstrainasaresultofaharmfulagentthatcanleadtoillness.Itisreasonabletopositthatsustainedmentalstrainduetooccupationalstresscanhavesuchseriouseffects.Thetwodifferenttypesofstresshavedifferentsignsandsymptoms,someofwhicharemorereadilydiscerniblethanothers.Forexample,physicalstresscanbeseenwhenthepersonsheartratebecomeshighandtheybegintobreathfaster.Incertainsituations,thepersoncanalsostarttosweatprofuselyorevenhavecoldfeet,handsorskin.Anothercommonsignisthatthemouthoftheindividualdriesupandtheymayalso;feeltiredandfatiguedmorefrequently.Theremayalsobemusclespasms,shortnessofbreath,tighteningofmusclesandtensionofthebody(Iavicolietal.,2001).Othercommonsignsofphysicalstressincludethepersoneatingmoreorlessthannormalconstantlyfeelingnervous.Thisisoftendetectedinsignssuchastwitchingofmuscles,fiddling,talkingrapidlyortoomuch,grindingteeth,nailbiting,pacingupanddownrestlessly,orotheruncommonrepetitivehabits.Inotherextremesituations,thepersonmaydevelopdiseasesorconditionssuchasmigraines,asthma,stomachandskinproblems,achesandpains,flu,etc.Thesesignscomeaboutasaresultofthephysicalwell-beingofthepersonbeingoffbalance(CrouterandManke,1994).Asnotedabove,youngerAmericanwomencurrentlysufferthehighestlevelsofoccupationalstressinthecountry,andtheseindividualsarealsoathigherriskofexperiencingadverseeffectsfromjob-relatedphysicalstressaswellasthedeleteriouseffectsthatcanresultfromoccupationalmentalstress(Chitnis,2014).Inthisregard,mentalstressisoftenseenwhenthepersonhassleepingdisordersthatmakethemeithersleeplessormorethanusual,constantfeelingofworry,anxietyorconfusion,frequentmoodchangessuchasfrustration,depression,anger,defensiveness,irritability,irrationality,impatient,restlessnessoroverreaction.Othercommonsignsofoccupationalstressincludedependenceonharmfulsubstancessuchasdrugs,alcoholorcigarettes(Okechukwuetal.,2010).Incertainsituations,thepersonmayalsodevelopapoormemoryortheinabilitytomakedecisions.Inextremesituations,apersonmayevendevelopirrationalfearsofnormalsituationssuchasseeingsunlight,washingunderrunningwater,venturingoutdoors,etc.Allthesesignscomeaboutbecauseofthementalsituationofthepersonbeingadverselyaffectedbyjob-relatedstressors.2.3SignsofoccupationalstressOccupationalstressusuallystartsoutasacutestressthatoccursfromtheincreasingdemandandpressureoftheworksituation.Itcanleadapersontoemotionaldistressthatisseeninanger,anxiety,depression,orirritability.Itcanalsoleadapersontophysicalproblemssuchasmuscletension,achesandpains,frequentheadaches,jawandbackpain.Thesenormallycomefromthepersonbeingexposedtoalotofmanualworkintheworkplacesuchaswalkingorstandingforlongperiods.Suchactivitiesmayalsoleadtoelevationofbloodpressurelevels,sweatypalms,rapidheartbeat,dizziness,coldfeetandhands,chestorbackpain,migrainesorshortnessofbreath.Occupationalstresscanalsobeseenwhenapersondevelopsstomachorbowelproblemsincludingheartburn,diarrhea,constipation,flatulenceorirritablebowelsyndrome.Thesemaybeasaresultofphysicalormentalstressintheworkplace(EldonandShani,1991).Occupationalstressmayalsohaveothersignssuchaslonelinessorisolationofanindividual,agitationorthepersonbeingunabletorelax,pessimism,lossofconcentration,constantworrying,procrastinationorneglectingpersonalresponsibilityorothernervoushabitssuchaspacing,grindingteethandnailbiting.2.4Effects/ConsequencesofjobstressAsputbyHulshofetal.(1999),occupationalstressisquitenormal.However,whenitbecomesexcessive,therearecertainadverseeffectsthatitmaycause.Theseeffectscanbedividedintothreedistinctcategories.Theseareeffectsontheindividual,tofamilyandtotheorganization.Atallthesethreelevels,occupationalstressproducesawiderangeofexpensive,debilitatingandundesirableconsequences(oss,2005)asdiscussedfurtherbelow.2.5ConsequencestotheindividualWorkplacestresscanleadtovariouseffectsontheindividual.Thesemaybemildorseveredependingontheextentofthestress.Theycanbedividedintotwomajorgroups,whicharephysicalandpsychologicaleffects.Inthisregard,El-KotandBurke(2011,p.11)reportthat,Individualsreportinghigherlevelsofjobstressorsgenerallyindicatelowerlevelsofjobsatisfaction,moreabsenteeism,lowerjobperformance,greaterintenttoquit,andlowerlevelsofpsychologicalandphysicalhealth.Themajorphysicaleffectsareunwantedfeelingsandbehaviors,whichincludefatigue,stomachupset,headache,muscularachesandpains,disturbanceofsleeporsleepingdisorders,eatingdisordersandotherchronicormildillnesses.Othersincludelowmotivation,lowwork-lifebalance,lowoverallqualityofworklife,absenteeism,lowmorale,lowproductivity,unsounddecisions,intentiontogetabetterjob,occupationalburnout,alienation,increasedsubstanceabuse,sabotageorsolitude.Psychologicalproblemsincludeanxiety,irritabilityorshorttemper,psychologicaldistress,passive-aggressivebehaviors,lossofself-confidence,lossofself-esteem,feelingsoffatigueandfutility,impulsivebehavior,lossofcontactwithreality,jobandlifedissatisfaction,andemotionalfatigue(Spector,2002).Moretroublingstill,theconsequencesofunmitigatednegativeoccupationalstressontheindividualextendtoalltypesofsectorsandindustriesamongbothwhite-andblue-collarworkers(Chaudry,2012).Whenoccupationalstressisnotkeptincheck,itmaybecomechronicandleadtosignssuchastraumaorevendepression.Apersonmayalsochangetheirbeliefsorviewsregardingaparticularaspectoflifebecauseoftheiractiveself-examinationoftenwithoutprofessionalhelps.Otheradverseeffectsincludeheartattack,cancer,violence,suicideorevenparalysis(ManonMireilleandBarling,2004).InastudythatwasconductedintheUS(Smithetal.,1992),itwasfoundthatelectronicmonitoringofemployeesintheworkplaceledtoincreaseworkplacestressandthusmanyeitherexperiencedhighboredomlevels,anxiety,depression,healthcomplaints,psychologicaltension,anger,andfatigue.Theresearchersalsofoundthatthesecompanieshadhighemployeeturnoverbecauseofthismonitoring(Smithetal.,1992).2.6ConsequencestofamilyTheindividualsfamilyalsoexperiencesundesirableconsequencesbecauseofoccupationalstress.Consequently,ofoccupationalstress,theindividualmayalsocarrysomeofthestresstotheirhomethuscausingstresstotheotherfamilymembers.Thepersonmayalsofailtoprovideforthefamilybecauseoflosingtheirjoborspendingtoomuchmoneyonsubstanceabuseortreatment.Therearealsootheradverseeffectstothefamily.Theseincludedealingwithsicknessorevendeathoftheindividual(WindleandDumenci,1997).Incertainsituations,occupationalstressmayalsobreakmarriagesandfamiliesbecauseofthefamilynotbeingabletocopewiththeindividualsdysfunctionalresponses.Thecouplemayalsobeadverselyaffectedintheirsexlifebecauseofstress.Occupationalstressalsoincreasesdomesticpressuressuchasfinancialworriesandchildcareresponsibilitiesthusaffectingthequalityoflifeoutsidetheirwork(Suraj-Narayan,2005).Othereffectsincludetakingworkhome,whichreducestheamountoftimespentwithfamilymembers,jobrelocationsthatmaysplitfamiliesandalackofleisureactivities(Suraj-Narayan,2005).2.7ConsequencestotheorganizationAttheorganizationallevel,therearealsoconsequencesofoccupationalstressthatarefelt.Thesearemajorlydividedintotwosubgroups,whichareorganizationalsymptomsandcosts.Organizationalsymptomsincludediscontentandlowmoralethatmayalsospreadtoothermembersoftheworkforce,lowproductivity,poorqualityofservicetocustomersorclientsthatmayleadtolossofcustomers,badpublicityespeciallywhenanindividualsufferschroniceffectsofworkplacestress,highaccidentratesthatleadtohugeinsurancecompensations,prematureretirement,highstaffturnover,poorinternalcommunication,increasedinternalconflict,diminishedcooperationofstaffmembersoradysfunctionalworkplaceclimate(HuffmanandCohen,2004).Indeed,theresearchtodatesuggeststhatasmuchas50percentofallworkplaceabsencesattributableinsomefashiontooccupationalstress(Akpochafe,2012).Organizationalcostsincludereducedperformanceorproductivityofworkersthatleadstodecreasedaddedvaluetotheproductorservicethusdiminishingclientsatisfaction,highcostsasaresultofincreasedemployeeturnover,increasedstaffretrainingandtrainingcosts,increasedinsurancepremiumsasaresultoffrequentinsuranceclaimsandpayouts,increasedhealth-carecostsandsickpaytoemployees,increaseddisabilitypaymentsasaresultofworkplaceaccidents,increasedcostofrepairingdamagedequipment,andbadpublicitywhichalsodiminishesrevenuesgreatly(BjeanandSultan-Taeb,2005).Becauseoccupationalstresshavebeenswhontohaveadirectimpactonemployeeperformance,itisnotsurprisingthatthereisalsoacorrespondingdeclineintheoverallproductivitylevelofaffectedorganizations.Suchdeclinesinoverallproductivityhaveaconcomitanteffectoncompaniesprofitabilityandcanevenresultinanincreasinglynegativeperceptionofacompany(Sharma,2015).Consequently,theadverseeffectsofoccupationalstressultimatelycombinetoadverselyaffectemployeerelationsaswellasorganizationalperformanceandprofitability(Sharma,2015).AccordingtoastudyconductedbyDaniels(2004),occupationalstresshasbeenfoundtocosttheUKeconomyandestimated$4billioneveryyear(BrunandMilczarek,2007).Thesecostsaremajorlyfrominsuranceclaimsrelatedtooccupationalstress.Withsuchhugepayouts,theresearchersfoundthatthereisreasontoconcentrateonthesocioculturalvariationintheirfindings.Theyalsofoundthatthishugesumwasalsocomingfromlossofcustomers,highemployeeturnoverandnegativepublicitybecauseofoccupationalstress.IntheEuropeanUnionasawhole,itisestimatedthatroughly20millionEurosislosteachyearasaresultofwork-relatedstress(EuropeanCommission,2002,Milczareketal.,2009).2.8PositiveeffectsofworkplacestressThoughoccupationalstressisoftenassociatedwithnegativeeffects,therearecertainpositiveeffectsthatcomefromworkplacestress.However,expertsputacaveatonpositivityofstressstatingthatitonlyhappenswhenstressisbalancedandmoderated.Thisiswhattheycommonlyrefertoasgoodstress(Shigemietal.,2000).Forexample,SauderandMurphy(2016)reportthattherearesomemisperceptionsconcerningstressanditseffectsofhumansthatindicatethatallsuchstressisharmful.Agrowingbodyofevidence,however,confirmsthatsomelevelofstressisanessentialpartofthehumanconditionandpeopletendtorespondfavorablytosometypesofstress.AccordingtoSauderandMurphy(2016,p.6),Challengeenergizesuspsychologicallyandphysically,anditmotivatesustolearnnewskillsandmasterourjobs.Notwithstandingthepotentialdeleteriouseffectsofunmitigatedandrelentlessworkplacestress,itisclearthatwithoutsomelevelsofstress,employeeswouldbecomecomplacentwithcorrespondingdeclinesintheirjobsatisfactionandmoralelevelsjustastoomuchworkplacestresscancausetheseunwantedoutcomes.Insum,SauderandMurphy(2016,p.7)concludethat,Theimportanceofchallengeinourworklivesisprobablywhatpeoplearereferringtowhentheysayalittlebitofstressisgoodforyou.Oneofthemostsignificantoutcomesofgoodstressisincreasedcreativity.Consequently,ofanindividualexperiencingworkplacestressleadingtolonelinessorsolitude,thepersonmayhaveachancetobroadentheirmindandembracenewideasthusleadingthemtoincreasetheircreativityconsiderably.Tosomeindividuals,stressisalsoamotivatingfactor.Whentheseindividualsarestressedout,theyfindagoodwaytohandleitbychannelingtheiremotionalandphysicalresponsestowardsworkingharderorrectifyinganywrongstheyhaddoneforexampleprocrastination(Smith,2003).Stressisalsorecognizedasacognitiveenhancer.Workplacestressimprovessomeaspectsofintelligencebygivingthemindaboostassociatedwithincreasedfocusing.Whenapersonisstressed,theymaybeabletorecallormemorizethingsbetterandtheirconcentrationlevelsmayalso;increase.Italsoenhancesthephysicalperformanceandenduranceofanindividual.Whenthepersonisabletochanneltheirstresstowardsphysicalactivities,itleadstoreleaseofadrenaline.Thiscausestheheartbeatandmetabolismtoincrease.However,thesereturntonormallevelsafewminutesaftertheactivity.Therefore,thepersonwillhaveincreasedreflexesandreactionsthatbuildendurance,preventandfightfatigueandtiredness.esearchershavealsoshownthatstresshelpstoimproveimmuneresponses.InastudyreportpresentedbyStrikeretal.(1999),itwasfoundthatstresshelpstoincreaseproductionofthestresshormone,cortisol,whichincreasesthebodysimmunity.Thisalsohassomenegativeaspectsincecortisoloverloadingmayleadtoabdominalobesity,whichincreasestheriskofcardiovascularandcerebrovasculardiseaseanddiabetes.Stressmayalsohelpanindividualtosolvetheirproblems.Consequently,ofstress,theindividualmaybeabletolookatsomethingdifferentlywhichallowsthemtosolveissuesbetweenthem.Moderateanxietyhasbeenshowntohelppeopleindecisionmakingbyspurringthemtotherightdirection.2.9CausesofworkplacestressGivenitsenormousimpactonorganizationalperformanceandproductivity,itisnotsurprisingthatagrowingbodyofscholarshiphasbeendevotedtothecausesofworkplacestressinrecentyears.StudiesbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhaveidentifiedthemaincausesofstressintheUnitedStatesasshowninTable1below.Table1CurrentleadingcausesofstressintheUnitedStatesCauseFactors1JobPressureCo-WorkerTension,Bosses,WorkOverload2MoneyLossofJob,educedetirement,MedicalExpenses3HealthHealthCrisis,TerminalorChronicIllness4elationshipsDivorce,DeathofSpouse,ArgumentswithFriends,Loneliness5PoorNutritionInadequateNutrition,Caffeine,ProcessedFoods,efinedSugars6MediaOverloadTelevision,adio,Internet,E-Mail,SocialNetworking7SleepDeprivationInabilitytoreleaseadrenalineandotherstresshormonesSource:AmericanInstituteofStress(2018),2014StressStatisticsathttps://www.stress.org/AscanbeseenfromthebreakdownoftheleadingcausesofstressintheUnitedStatestodayshowninTable1above,job-relatedstressorssuchaspoorrelationshipswithcoworkersandsuperiorsaswellasinordinatelyheavyworkloadsformtheprimarycauseofstresstoday.Likewise,thesecond-leadingcauseofstressintheUnitedStatesisalsojobrelated,withthelossofemploymentorbenefitsrepresentingthesecond-leadingcauseofstressinthecountry.Moreover,thenumbersofAmericansthatareexperiencedthesetypesofjob-relatedstressorsisstaggeringasshowninTable2below.Table2U.S.stressstatisticsCategoryDataPercentofpeoplewhoregularlyexperiencephysicalsymptomscausedbystress77%egularlyexperiencepsychologicalsymptomscausedbystress73%Feeltheyarelivingwithextremestress33%Feeltheirstresshasincreasedoverthepastfiveyears48%Citedmoneyandworkastheleadingcauseoftheirstress76%eportedlyingawakeatnightduetostress48%Source:AmericanInstituteofStress(2018),2014StressStatisticsathttps://www.stress.org/AscanbeseenfromthedatapresentedinTable2above,morethanthree-quarters(77%)ofAmericanworkersreportexperiencingstress-relatedphysicalsymptomsandnearlyasmany(73%)reportregularlyexperiencingjob-relatedpsychologicalsymptoms.Inaddition,one-thirdofAmericanworkersreportfeelingasiftheyarelivingwithextremestressandnearlyhalf(48%)reportfeelingasiftheirlevelofstresshasintensifiedoverthepast5years.Giventhesedisturbingtrends,itisnotsurprisingthatmanyAmericanworkersalsoreportsufferingfromvariousjob-relatedstressorsassetforthinTable3below.Table3StressimpactstatisticsCategoryDataPercentwhosaystresshasanegativeimpactontheirpersonalandprofessionallife48%Employedadultswhosaytheyhavedifficultymanagingworkandfamilyresponsibilities.31%Percentwhocitedjobsinterferingwiththeirfamilyorpersonaltimeasasignificantsourceofstress.35%Percentwhosaidstresshascausedthemtofightwithpeopleclosetothem54%eportedbeingalienatedfromafriendorfamilymemberbecauseofstress26%Annualcoststoemployersinstressrelatedhealthcareandmissedwork.$300billionPercentwhosaytheyarealwaysoroftenunderstressatwork30%Source:AmericanInstituteofStress(2018),2014StressStatisticsathttps://www.stress.org/Whilesometypesofjob-relatedstressmaybeconducivetohigherlevelsofcreativityandserveasamotivationalfactor,thedatapresentedinTable3abovemakesitclearthatmanyAmericanworkerssufferfromoccupationalstress.Infact,nearlyhalf(48%)reportthatstresshashadanegativeeffectontheirpersonalandprofessionallives,andmorethanhalf(54%)reportthatstressthatcausedthemproblemswiththeirinterpersonalrelationships.Inaddition,almostone-third(30%)reportfeelingthattheyarefrequentlyoralwaysunderstressattheirjobs,andmorethanone-third(35%)reportthattheirjobshaveinterferedwiththeirfamilyorpersonalaffairsresultinginelevatedstresslevels.Beyondthehumantollexactedbyjob-relatedstress,theeconomicimpactisalsoenormous,standingatabout$300billionayearinhealthcarecostsandmissedwork.esearchbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhasalsoidentifiedanumberofphysicalsymptomsthatarecausedbyoccupationalstressthatarecongruentwiththemostfrequentlycitedsymptomsintherelevantliteratureassetforthinTable4below.Table4PercentageofAmericanworkerscitingjob-relatedstress:physicalsymptomsCategoryDataFatigue51%Headache44%Upsetstomach34%Muscletension30%Changeinappetite23%Teethgrinding17%Changeinsexdrive15%Feelingdizzy13%Source:AmericanInstituteofStress(2018),2014StressStatisticsathttps://www.stress.org/AscanbeseenfromthedatapresentedinTable4above,morethanhalf(51%)ofAmericanworkersreportexperiencingfatigueasaresultofjob-relatedstress,andnearlyasmany(44%)reportsufferingfromheadaches.Morethanone-thirdofAmericanworkers(34%)alsoreportexperiencingupsetstomachs,muscletension(30%)andalmostone-quarter(23%)reportchangesintheirappetitesduetojob-relatedstress.SmallerpercentagesofAmericanworkersalsoreportedsufferingfrombruxism(e.g.,teethgrinding),changesintheirlibidos,orfeelingdizzy.Inaddition,manyAmericanworkersalsoreportexperiencingawidearrayofpsychologicalsymptomsduetojob-relatedstressassetforthinTable5below.Table5Americanworkerscitingjob-relatedstress:psychologicalsymptomsCategoryDataIrritabilityoranger50%Feelingnervous45%Lackofenergy45%Feelingasthoughyoucouldcry35%Source:AmericanInstituteofStress(2018),2014StressStatisticsathttps://www.stress.org/AscanbeseenfromthedatapresentedinTable5above,fullyhalfofAmericanworkersreportsufferingfromirritabilityorangerduetojob-relatedstressand45%eachreportfeelingnervousorexperiencingalackofenergy.Inaddition,morethanone-third(35%)reportingfeelingastheycouldcryatanytimeduetojob-relatedstress.Theserecentstatisticsunderscorethefactthatgettingupandgoingtoworkeachdaycanbeadeath-defyingexperienceformanyifnotmostAmericanstoday.Althoughthereisageneralconsensusamongresearchersthattheoverarchingcausesofworkplacestressincludevariousworkplaceconditionsandthemannerinwhichworkersinteractwiththeseconditions(SauterandMurphy,2016).Thereremainssomedebateamongresearchers,however,concerningthepreciseroleplayedbyindividualfactorssuchaspersonality,copingskillsandresilienceontheeffectsofworkplacestress(SauterandMurphy,2016).EmployeeresiliencetoworkplacestressisdefinedbyNilakantandWalker(2014,p.80),asbeingthemaintenanceofpositiveadjustmentunderchallengingconditionssuchthattheorganizationemergesfromthoseconditionsstrengthenedandmoreresourceful.Whileadditionalresearchisneededconcerningtheseindividualfactorsandtheirroleinemployeeresponsestoworkplacestress,itisreasonabletopositthatcertaintypesofworkingconditionsarethesourceofstressformostindividuals(SauterandMurphy,2016).ThisassertioniscongruentwiththeguidanceprovidedbytheU.S.NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealthwhichhasrecognizedthatwhileviewsdifferontheimportanceofworkercharacteristicsversusworkingconditionsastheprimarycauseofjobstress,theoverarchingthemethatemergesfromtheresearchtodateconcerningoccupationalstressisthatcertainworkingconditions,suchasexcessiveworkloadsandconflictingexpectations,arestressfulandnegativelyaffectmostpeople(ascitedinSewell,2009p.37).Whatisknownforcertainatpresentisthattherearemanycausesofstressrangingfromworkdemand,supervisorystyle,organizationalcultureandsupport,workhazards,generalworkenvironment,roleconflict,workplacechanges,individualfactors,jobinvolvement,workflexibility,workplaceincidents,etc.SixmajorcausesofworkplacestresshavebeenidentifiedbytheHealthandSafetyExecutiveoftheUK(HealthandSafetyExecutive,2013)asfollows:2.9.1Unreasonabledemands:Thiscauseincludesissuessuchasworkload,workpatternsandtheworkenvironment;2.9.2Excessivecontrol:Howmuchsaythepersonhasinthewaytheydotheirwork;2.9.3Lackofsupport:Thisincludestheencouragement,sponsorshipandresourcesprovidedbytheorganization,linemanagementandcolleagues;2.9.4Lackofproperworkplacerelationships:Thisincludespromotingpositiveworkingtoavoidconflictanddealingwithunacceptablebehavior;2.9.5.Lackofunderstandingofroleofjobexpectation:Whetherpeopleunderstandtheirrolewithintheorganizationandwhethertheorganizationensuresthattheydonothaveconflictingroles;and,2.9.6Unmanagedworkplacechanges:Howorganizationalchange(largeorsmall)ismanagedandcommunicatedintheorganization(Workplacestressmanagementstandards,2017,p.2).ThesecausesofworkplacestressarealsosimilartothoseidentifiedbytheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministrationintheUS(OccupationalSafety&HealthAdministration,1995)andarediscussedfurtherbelow.2.10UnreasonabledemandsWorkplacedemandsincludeissuesrelatingtoworkload,workenvironmentandpatterns.Occupationalstressmayoccurwhentheemployeesareunabletocopewiththeirworkplacedemands.Consequently,ofthis,thepersonmayfeelthattheyareunabletomatchtheskillsandabilities.Thereforetheemployeesdevelopstressasawayofcompensatingfortheirinabilitytomeettheworkplacedemands(Tarafdaretal.,2007).ThiscauseofworkplacestressisconsistentwiththedefinitionprovidedbySharma(2015)whichstatesthatoccupationalstresscanbedefinedastheadversepsychologicalandphysicalreactionsthatoccurinanindividualasaresultoftheirbeingunabletocopewiththedemandsbeingmadeonthem(p.53).2.11ExcessivecontrolControlappliedbyemployersandsupervisorsisalsoacontributingfactortoworkplacestress.Whenemployeesareexcessivelymonitoredintheworkplace,theydevelopboredom,dislike,lowmotivationandlowmorale,whichleadtoworkplacestress.Consequently,ofthisexcessivecontrol,theemployeesareunabletousetheirskills,creativityandinitiativetowardsthesuccessoftheorganization.Theemployeesalsobecomediscouragedtodevelopnewskillssincetheyaredemotivatedandunwillingtotakenewchallengesintheworkplace.AstudybyKirk-BrownandWallace(2009)foundthattheextenttowhichemployeesfeeltheylackpersonalday-to-daycontrolovertheirjobresponsibilitieswilllikelybetheextenttowhichtheseemployeesareatgreaterriskofdevelopingoccupationalstress.Forinstance,Kirk-BrownandWallace(2009,p.30)advisethat,Perceptionsofpersonalcontrolalleviatethenegativeimpactofjobdemands.Controlreferstotheworker\\\'sabilitytoreframeeventsorsituationsaslessthreatening.2.12LackofsupportWhenemployeeslackencouragement,resourcesandsponsorshipfromtheorganization,supervisorsandcolleagues,theydevelopstress.Thisisbecausetheyareunabletoachievetheperformancemeasuresattachedtotheirjobsandtheyexperiencechallengesandotherissuesthattheyareunabletoresolve.Thereforetheemployeesarediscouragedtoputtheirbesteffortstowardsthesuccessofthecompanyororganization(Verbeeketal.,2004).2.13LackofproperworkplacerelationshipsWorkplacerelationshipscreateconflictthatemployeesareunabletoresolve.Theseincludebullying,harassmentandotherundesirablebehaviors.Whentheorganizationlackspoliciesandprocedurestopreventorresolvesuchunacceptablebehavior,theyseemoutofcontrolandemployeesdevelopstressbecauseofthis.2.14LackofunderstandingofroleofjobexpectationWhenemployeesdonotunderstandtheirrolewithinanorganizationorwhentheyarenotappreciatedorvaluedwithinanorganization,theydevelopinternalconflictssincetheydonotunderstandtheirimportanceandjobexpectations.Employeesthusdonotmakeeffortstoensuretheirworkisdonetothebestoftheirabilityandtheybecomedemoralizedanddemotivatedtowork.2.15Unmanagedworkplacechangesesistancetochangeisoneofthemajorcausesofworkplacestress.Thisisespeciallysowhenthechangeinvolveslargeaspectsoftheorganizationsuchasanoverhaulofmanagementorstandardoperatingprocedures.Suchchangesmaybeoverwhelmingfortheemployeesandwhenchangemanagementisnotdone,theemployeeswillnotbeawareofthereasonforthechangeandthuswillresistitleadingtoworkplacestressastheyfeeluncomfortablewiththenewstatusquo(Vahteraetal.,1999).2.16FactorsthataffectjobperformancefromstressAnunfortunateconcomitantofvirtuallyanytypeofemploymentissomelevelofstress.Insomecases,thestressthatemployeesroutinelyexperienceismotivationalandcontributestogreaterlevelsofcreativity,butinfartoomanycasesjob-relatedstressislikeasilentkiller.Infact,leftunabated,job-relatedstresscanhaveaprofoundlyadverseeffectonjobperformance.Inthisregard,Lynott(2011,p.26)emphasizesthat,Stressisaconstantpresenceintheworkplace,andnevermoresothanindifficulteconomictimessuchasthese.Occasionallyiteruptsintoheadline-makinginstancesofdeadlyviolence.Moreoften,however,stresssimmersjustbeneaththesurface,silentlyeatingawayatmorale[and]productivity.Insum,itisapparentthattotheextentthatworkersarestressedoutduetojob-relatedfactorswilllikelybetheextenttowhichtheirjobperformanceisaffected,andtherehasalsobeenagrowingbodyofscholarshipdevotedtotheseissuesinrecentyears.Forinstance,inastudyconductedbyAbuAl-ub(2004),itwasshownthatthereisaU-shapedorcurvilinearrelationshipbetweenworkplacestressandjobperformance.Thestudyshowedthatworkerswhohadmoderatelevelsofoccupationalstressperformedworseintheirjobscomparedtothosewhohaveextremelyloworhighlevelsofworkplacestress.Inadifferentbutsimilarstudy,itwasshownthattheremightbefourdifferentrelationshipsbetweenworkplacestressandjobperformance.ThesearecurvilinearorU-shaped,negativelinear,positivelinearandnorelationship(Jamal,1984).Thesetwostudiescitedaboveidentifiedvariousfactorsthatemanatefromstressanddirectlyaffecttheemployeesjobperformance.Oneofthemajorfactorswaslackofresources.Whentheemployeelacksthenecessitiestoconducttheirjob,theyareunabletoperformintheirroles.Thesecondfactorwasworkoverload,whichmadetheworkerstobeoverwhelmedandlackdirectionwiththeirwork.Thirdwaslackofcommunicationbetweentheemployeesandsupervisors.Thismeantthattheemployeeslackeddirectionandwereunabletoconducttheirday-to-dayactivities.Italsocreatedadisconnectinpassingofdutiesthusmakingsupervisorstoberecognizedascommandersratherthanco-workers.Anotherstudyfoundthatemployeeswhowereunderstresswere50%morelikelytoerrintheirworkwhileanotherstudyshowedthatthiscouldbeashighas70%dependingonthelevelofstress.DatafromtheBureauofLaborStatisticsalsoshowsthatforeverydaythataworkerundergoesstresstheymayendupbeingoutoftheworkplaceforroughly20days.Toemployers,thisrepresentsahugereductioninjobperformance.Otherstudiesconductedintheearly50s(Lazarusetal.,1952)andlate60s(Wilkinson,1969)showthatoccupationalstressaffectstracking,verbalreasoning,signaldetectionandsentenceformationofemployees.Thismayalsoadverselyaffecttheclient-employeerelationsthusreducingthequalityofserviceorproductgiventotheemployer.Moreresearch(Cohen,1980,GlassandSinger,1972)hassupportedthesestatementsbyaddingthatstresscreatesperpetualdistractionsthatpreventtolerance,increasefrustration,decreaseclericalaccuracyandincreaseworkloadeitherperpetuallyoreventuallythroughprocrastination.Allthesefactorsleadtopoorjobperformance.AccordingtoMichie(2002),individualsdifferintheirstressriskandvulnerabilitytoadverseeffectsofstress.Individuals,theymaytendtoreactemotionallytosituations,whichresultsinthemdisconnectingwiththeworkplacethusreducingtheirjobperformance.Othersmayexperiencefatigueortirednessthatpreventsthemfromperformingtheirtasks.InanotherstudybyMichailidisandAsimenos(2002),itwasfoundthatoccupationalstressnegativelyimpactsthedegreeofsatisfactionoftheemployeewiththeirownachievement.Thisalsonegativelyaffectspersonalgrowth,skillutilizationandparticipationindecision-makingthusreducingjobperformance.2.17ManagementofstressStressmanagementhasbeenthesubjectofmanyworkplacechangesinordertocontrolthelevelsofstresstoimproveworkperformance.Itisinthebestinterestsoforganizationsofallsizesandtypestomanageworkplacestresstothemaximumextentpossibleduetothedocumentedadverseimpactthatunmitigatedstresscanhaveonemployeejobsatisfactionandphysicalwell-being(andallandBuys,2013).Likewise,themanagementofworkplacestressisalsoimportantduetotheincreasedworkerscompensationclaimsthatareassociatedwithelevatedlevelsofstress(andallandBuys,2013).Severaltechniqueshavebeenappliedtoimprovethegeneralwell-beingofemployeeswithvaryinglevelsofeffectiveness.Inaddition,fewofthesemethodshavereceivedattentionfromresearchersthereforetheamountandqualityofevidenceonthevarioustechniquesvariesgreatly.Managementofstressbuildsonthemodelsofstress,especiallythedemand-control-supportmodelthatstatesthatforstresstobemanagedeffectively,itisimportantfortheretobearewardandeffortstopromotebalance.Inadditiontothis,theorganizationmusthavesufficientsystemstoensureorganizationaljusticebyensuringmanagementofstressandanyprogramsadoptedareundertakenbyallemployeesincludingtheseniormanagement(JohnsonandHall,1990,KarasekandTheorell,1990).esearchersagreethattherearetwomajormodelsofworkplacestressmanagement.Thesearethetransactionalmodelandhealthrealizationorinnatehealthmodel.2.18TransactionalmodelThetransactionalmodelsuggeststhatstressresultsfromanimbalancebetweenthedemandsofanindividualandtheresourcesavailableorwhenpressureexceedstheabilityoftheindividualtocope.ItwasdevelopedbyLazarusandFolkman(1984)whopositedthatstressmanagementisbestwhentheindividualacceptsthatstressisasaresultoftheinabilityofthepersontocope.Therefore,stressmanagementispremisedonmediatingthestressresponsetoallowtheindividualtocontrolstresslevelsandincreasetheircopingability.Accordingtothetransactionalmodel,thepersonmustalsoidentifythefactorsthataffecttheirabilitytocontrolthestressinordertoidentifytherightinterventionmethodsthateffectivelytargettheidentifiedfactors.Theauthorsofthismodelarguethatstressisatransactionbetweentheindividualandtheirenvironmentthusbyidentifyingandcontrollingthemitigatingfactors,stresscanbemanagedeffectively.Thetransactionalmodelproposestheindividualtobetaughthowtomanagetheirstressorhowtheycanadequatelydevelopcopingskillstoimprovetheirlivesandbeabletohandleallmannerofstressors.2.19HealthrealizationorinnatehealthmodelThismodelwasputforthbySedgeman(2005)andMills(1995).Theauthorsarguethatstressisnotfoundedonthepresenceofanactualstressor.Themodeldoesnotfocusontheindividualsappraisalofthestressorratherontheirthoughtprocess,whichdeterminestheirresponsetothesituation.Theauthorsofthemodelarguethatstressismanagedbyself-appraisal,whichfiltersallfactorsofinsecurityofnegativityandcreatesafeelingofwell-beingbyputtingagriponnegativeorinsecurethinking.Theindividualwillthusbeabletodisengagefromthestressorandintroducenaturalpositivefeelingsthatultimatelyreducestress.2.20OrganizationallevelmanagementMichie(2002)positsthatfortheeffectivemanagementofworkplacestress,theremustbeorganizationallevelinterventions.Theneedfororganizationlevelstressmanagementisbecausetheworkplaceitselfisthestressor.Therefore,theorganizationmustintroduceinterventionsatthestructurallevelincludinghiringmorestaff,reducingorincreasingworkschedulesappropriately,orcreatingaconduciveenvironmentoratthepsychologicallevelincludingsocialsupport,effectivesupervisionratherthaninvasivesupervisionandincreasingemployeeparticipationindecision-making.Likewise,CooperandCartwright(1999)reportthat,Physicalcharacteristicsofthejob[such]asexcessiveheatandnoisemayproducestrainamongworkersandincreasetheprobabilityofaccidents.Shiftschedule,astructuralaspectofwork,canengendersignificantlevelofphysicalandmentaldiscomfortifnotorderedcorrectly.Theemphasishereisontheorganizationbeingthesourceofstressmanagementpracticesratherthantheindividualandithasbeenshowntobeeffective(GardellandGustavsen,1980,Williamsetal.,1998).2.21DefinitionofsupervisionSupervisionisdefinedastheregulationorcontrolofbehaviorthroughlaidoutrulesorrestrictions.Accordingtovariousauthors,therearedifferentaspectsofsupervisionthatneedtobelookedatindefiningit.Theseincludetakingupofideasandpracticesthatprovidetherightenvironmenttofollowthelaidoutrulesandrestrictions,overseeingthatemployeesareprovidedwiththerighttoolsandresourcestosucceedintheirtasks,providingadviceandsupport,organizingworktasksinagreatordertomakedecisions.2.22CategoriesofsupervisorymodelsSupervisionmodelscanbecategorizedintothreecategoriesbasedontheirdefiningcharacteristics.Thesecategoriesarethepsychotherapy-basedsupervisionmodels,developmentalmodels,andintegrativemodels(SmithandWitt,1993).2.23Psychotherapy-basedsupervisionmodelsThesemodelsdwellonthenaturalextensionofthetherapyitselfandinformtheobservationandselectionofdataforsupervisors(HollowayandWolleat,1994).Oneexampleofthesemodelsisthepsychodynamicapproachtosupervisionwhichstatesthatpsychodynamicsupervisioncanbedividedintothreecategorieswhicharesupervisor-centered,employee-centeredandsupervisory-matrix-centered(Loganbilletal.,1982).Employee-centeredsupervisioncamefromSigmundFreud,whichstatesthatsupervisionfocusesontheemployeebehaviors.Inthiscase,theroleofthesupervisordependsontheemployeesbehavior.Supervisor-centeredfocusesonthesupervisorscontentandprocesstoassistemployeesinmanagementofresistance,resolvinganxietiesandotherproblems.Thesupervisory-matrix-centeredapproachmeansthatthesupervisorsroleisnotthatofanuninvolvedexpertrathertheyshouldparticipateandreflectuponemployeedutiesandbehaviors(Haynesetal.,2003).Anotherexampleofthesemodelsisthecognitive-behavioralsupervisionmodelwhichstatesthatthesupervisorsmajortaskistoteachtheemployeethetheoreticalaspectsoftheirwork(LieseandBeck,1997).Anothermodelistheperson-centeredsupervisionmodel,whichstatesthatthesupervisorshouldensurethattheemployeeshavetherighttools,skillsandresourcestoperformtheirtasks.Thereforethesupervisorisacollaboratorinthesuccessoftheindividualbyprovidinganenvironmenttoengagetheemployeetowardssuccess(Lambers,2000).2.24DevelopmentalmodelsDevelopmentalmodelsdefineprogressivestagesofdevelopmentoftheemployeefromanovicetoanexpertwitheachstageconsistingofdiscreteskillsandcharacteristics.Accordingtothesemodels,thesupervisortakesadevelopmentalapproachtosupervisionbyaccuratelyidentifyingthecurrentstageoftheemployeeandfacilitatingtheirprogressiontothenextstage(ZimmermanandSchunk,2003).OneofthemostpopulardevelopmentalmodelsistheintegrateddevelopmentmodeldevelopedbyStoltenberg(1981)andStoltenbergandDelworth(1987).Themodeldescribesthreelevelsofemployeedevelopment.Thefirstisentry-levelwheretheyarefullofanxietyandfearofevaluation.Themid-leveliswheretheemployeesexperiencefluctuatinglevelsofconfidenceandmotivationwhilethethirdlevelisthatofsecurityandstablelevelsofmotivation.AnothermodelisonnestadandSkovholtsmodelwhichstatesthatemployeesdevelopinsixphases(onnestadandSkovholt,2003).Thefirstthreearebasedontheintegrateddevelopmentmodelwhiletheotherthreearethenoviceprofessional,experiencedprofessionalandseniorprofessionalphases,whichdefinetherelativeexperiencegainedbyemployeeintheircareer.2.25IntegrativemodelsIntegrativesupervisionmodelsrelyonseveraltheoriesandtechniques(Haynesetal.,2003).AgoodexampleofthesemodelsisBernardsdiscriminationmodeldevelopedbyBernard(1979)andrevisedbyBernardandGoodyear(2009).Thismodelstatesthattherearesixfociofsupervision.Thefirstthreearefoci,whichareintervention,conceptualizationandpersonalizationwhilethelastthreeareroles,whichareteacher,counselorandconsultant.Accordingtothemodel,thesupervisorrespondsusingoneoftheninewaysresultingfromthethreerolesxthethreefoci.Anothermodelisthesystemsapproachmodel(Holloway,1995)whicharguesthatthesupervisorandemployeehaveamutuallyinvolvingrelationshipwithsevendimensions.Thesearesupervisionfunctions,supervisiontasks,employee,trainee,supervisor,andtheinstitution(MimuraandGriffiths,2003).2.26SupervisorytasksAsupervisoryhasdifferenttaskstoconductdependingontheexactworkplacesetting.However,ingeneral,theybeginbyfamiliarizingthemselveswiththecurrentjobdescriptionsoftheemployees.Asupervisorcannotbeabletoconductanytaskwithoutbeingabletounderstandtherequirementsofeachoftheemployeespositions.Minoetal.(1999)arguesthattherearefourmajorsupervisorytasks.Thesearecoaching,mentoring,advocatingfortheorganizationandadvocatingfortheemployee.2.27CoachingAsacoach,thesupervisorisinvolvedinworkingwiththeemployeestoestablishgoals,plansandtimelinesforaccomplishmentoftasks.Thesupervisorthusprovidesongoingsupportandguidancefortheemployeestocompletetheirtaskswithease.Thesupervisorhelpstodemystifyjobtasks,whichmaymakeanemployee,feelthattheyareunabletomeetthegoalsofthepositiontheyarein.Ascoaches,supervisorsalsotakeintoconsiderationotheraspectsofemployeelifesuchastraining,utilizationofpersonalstrengthsandweaknesses.Themainthingisforthesupervisortoprovideeffectivesupervisionthatenablesemployeesmakebetterdecisionsandperformtheirtasksbetter.2.28MentoringAsamentor,asupervisorunderstandsthatanemployeeneedstohaveagoodwork-lifebalanceandtriestoupholdthat.Thesupervisorthusuniquelyprovidesadvicetoemployeesinvariousaspectsrelatingtotheirjobandlifeingeneral.Thesupervisormakestheemployeelookathimorherasamodelforpersonaldevelopmentanddirection.Thisaffirmstheage-oldphraseofleadingbyexample.2.29AdvocatingfortheorganizationAsupervisoristheorganizationschiefadvocatetotheemployees.Thesupervisorensuresthatemployeesconducttheirtaskswithutmostzealtoensurethattheymeettheirjobperformancestandardsandgoals.Thesupervisoralsoensurescompliancewithorganizationalpoliciesandprogramsthatcomefromthemanagement.Thoughemployeesmaybeconfusedorfrustratedbyactionsbyasupervisor,thereisneedtocheckemployeestoensuretheymeettheirexpectations.Thesupervisormustthusbestrictbuttactful.2.30AdvocatingforemployeesSupervisorsactasintermediariesbetweentheorganizationandtheemployees.Thusastheyadvocatefortheorganization,theyalsoneedtoadvocateforemployees.Employeerequeststothemanagementneedtobetakenintoconsideration.Thesupervisoralsoensuresfairnessandjusticeintheworkplaceinaspectssuchaspromotion.Thesupervisoralsoexplainssituationsfacingemployeestothemanagementtoensurethattheyarenotbeingtreatedunfairlyoragainsttheirwill(Manningetal.,1996).2.31OtherrolesApartfromthesefourmajorroles,supervisorsalsoplayotherrolesintheorganization.Oneisthattheyresolveemployeeconflictsandcomplaints.Here,thesupervisorhelpsemployeestoaddressandresolveanyworkplaceconcernstheymayhave.Thisincludesmediatingbetweenemployeesorbetweentheemployeeandthemanagement.Anotherroleistoapproverecordsandrequestsbystaffmembers.Supervisorsapproveallworkrelatedaspectsforemployeessuchasattendanceortimeoffrequests.2.32FrequencyofsupervisionForsupervisiontobeeffective,itneedstobeasregularaspossiblewithoutinvadingtheprivacyofemployees.Invasionofprivacyinvolvestoomuchclosesupervisionorregularmonitoringofemployeeemails,textsorotheraspects.Thefrequencyofsupervisionvariesfromoneorganizationtoanotherwithmostdeemingthatitdependsmajorlyontheemployeesexperience.Newemployeesneedtobesupervisedmoreoftencomparedtomoreexperiencedones.Inaddition,juniorlevelemployeesneedtobesupervisedmoreoftenthanmanagersorotherseniorlevelemployees(Leighetal.,1999).2.33ConfidentialityandsupervisionConfidentialityisakeyissueinemployeesupervision.Supervisorsandemployeesneedtodefineaclearandmutualunderstandingoftheboundariesofconfidentialityinrespecttosupervisorytasks.Thiswillenableasafeandeffectiveworkingrelationshiptobedevelopedbetweenthesupervisorandtheemployee.Confidentialityinvolvesthesupervisorshowingtheemployeethattheymeanwhattheyaresayingandthattheyarewillingtofollowthroughonanyagreementstheymakewiththeemployee.Thesupervisormustalsodemonstratethattheyarenon-judgmentalandthatnothingcanmakethembreaktheconfidentialityagreement.Ontheotherhand,theemployeegainsthesupervisorstrustbybeingashonestandopenaspossibletothesupervisorinwork-relatedtasks.Insodoing,apositiveworkingrelationshipwillbebuiltfoundedontrustandthiswillfosteranewthinkingprocessanddevelopmentoflearning(Grzywaczetal.,2002).Intheday-to-dayrunningofsupervisorytasks,thesupervisormayneedtoinvolveotherindividuals.Whenthisisrequired,thesupervisorneedstoprotectandhonortheconfidentialityagreementwiththeemployee.Thisisdonebyrequestingtheemployeetoallowthemtoincludeanotherindividualandexplainingtotheemployeewhyitmaybenecessarytoinvolveanotherindividual.Whenconsentisgivenbytheemployeetoinvolveothers,thesupervisorshouldonlydivulgetheminimuminformationrequiredbytheotherindividualthatallowsthemtoprovidetheirsupportinthedevelopingsituation.2.34AdvantagesofsupervisorysupportManyorganizationsemphasizetheimportantofsupervisorysupportforemployeesbecauseofitsadvantages.Amongthelargestadvantagesisitspositiveeffectonworkermoraleandjobsatisfaction.Supportivesupervisionhelpstoreduceoccupationalstress,whichhelpsemployeestohandletheiropportunitiesthusreducingtheinfluenceofotherfactorsthataffectjobperformanceorleadtolessthansatisfactoryproductsorservicestoclientsorcustomers.AccordingtoKadushin(1992),thesupportivesupervisionhelpstopreventpotentiallystressfulsituationsthusremovesemployeesfromstressandreducesstressontheworker.Thishelpsemployeestoadjusttotheworkenvironmentandincreasesmoraleandjobsatisfaction.Supportivesupervisionalsoenhancescommunicationintheworkplaceandcreatesasenseofcohesiveness.Thisisbecausetheemployeesfeelthesupervisoristheretohelpratherthandiscourageorcriticize.Therefore,workerswillbeabletotakeresponsibilityfortheirownactionsandbewillingtojustifythem.Thisgreatlyimprovesorganizationalcommunication.Anotheradvantageofsupportivesupervisionisthatitallowsforsharingofideasandresourcesintheworkplace.Sincetheemployeesseethesupervisorasmoreofacollaboratorthanfoe,theyareencouragedtogivetheirideastowardsthesuccessofthecompanyororganization.Supportivesupervisionalsohelpstoensurethatthecompanystickswithintheoutlinedpoliciesandprocedures.Consequently,offosteringcommunicationbetweenmembersofstaffandsupervisors,theemployeeswillbemorelikelytofollowcompanypoliciesandproceduressincetheyareabletorelatecloselytothem.Supportivesupervisionalsohasotheradvantagessuchasfosteringprofessionalandpersonaldevelopmentthatcomesfrommotivationofemployees,reducedoccupationalburnoutbecauseofemployeeshavingflexibleworkschedules,qualityserviceandproductstoclientsandconsumers,aswellasimprovingorganizationalculturesincestafffeeltheyaresupported.Supportivesupervisioncontributedmajorlytoensuringorganizationsprovideshighqualityservicesandproductsaswellasensuringconsistentoutcomesbyemployees.2.35EffectivesupervisionEffectivesupervisionisacriticalaspectforanyorganizationlookingforwardtodeveloppositiveoutcomesforitsemployees.Asaresult,organizationsthereforeneedtomakeapositiveandunambiguouscommitmenttowardshavingastrongsupervisionculturefortheiremployees.Thiscanbeachievedthroughdevelopingaclearpolicyonsupervisionaswellasencouragingpracticethatsupportsthispolicy.Anotherwayofachievingthisistohaveeffectivetrainingforitssupervisorsandhavingstrongleadsthroughtheseniormanagementteam.Anotherimportantwayofachievingeffectivesupervisionistoensurerealisticperformanceobjectivesaresetwhicharemonitoredregularlytocheckcompliance.Effectivesupervisionhelpsgreatlytoreduceworkplacestress.Thisisbecauseamongitsmajoradvantagesisthatithelpsineffectiveworkloadmanagement.Byhavingclearandrealisticperformanceobjectives,theorganizationisabletoknowwhatisexpectedfromeachemployeeandthusplanfortheachievementoftheseobjectivesthrougheffectivemanagementofeachemployeesworkload.Further,effectivesupervisioncontributestothewell-beingofemployeesbyreducingworkplacestresslevelswhicharepositivelycorrelatedwithincreasedemployeeproductivityandnegativelycorrelatedwithunplannedemployeeturnover,reducedproductivityandemployeewell-being(eubenandChiba,2017).Inadditiontotheforegoing,effectivesupervisionalsohelpstoensuresufficientplanningofemployeetasksaswellasotherimportantconsiderationsfortheorganization.Byembeddingeffectivesupervisiontoorganizationalculture,theorganizationisabletoensureitcompetentlymonitorsemployeeperformanceandthusplansaheadbasedonthis.2.36TherelationshipbetweenstressandsupervisionOccupationalstressisoftenassociatedwithemployeesnotbeingabletocopewithcertainsituationsintheirworkplace(Gnilkaetal.,2012).Thesemayincludestrictsupervision.Whenanemployeeisnotabletocopewiththesupervisionlevelintheorganization,theexperiencestress,whichmayleadtothenegativeaspects,mentionedearlier.Bordin(1979)alsostatedthatwhensupervisorsareunabletomotivatetheiremployees,thestrengthoftheworkingallianceisgreatlycompromisedmakingitharderforemployeestodischargetheirduties.Bordin(1983)alsoaddsthatthesupervisorsattitudecreatespersonaldevelopmentinthesuperviseewhichhelpsthemtocopewiththeworkplaceandthusreducesoccupationalstress.Italsohelpsthemtoappraisetheirworkdemandsandwhethertheyhavethenecessaryresourcesandabilitytocope.Thusithelpsthemtoexerciseemotional,socialandphysicalcontrolwhicheffectivelypreventsthenegativepsychologicaloutcomesthatareassociatedwithstress(Finneyetal.,2013).2.37TheimpactofleadershiponstressOvertheyears,organizationshavemovedfromcharismaticleadershiptointroducesharedordistributedleadershipwithmoreethicalvaluessuchasauthenticity,fairleadershipandethicsbeingemphasized.Thisisbecausetheorganizationshaveunderstoodthenegativeeffectsofpoorleadership,whichincludeabusivesupervision,highemployeeturnover,poorjobperformance,andpassive-avoidanceleadership.Itisestimatedthatorganizationsallovertheworldspendatotalor36to60billionUSdollarseveryyearonleadershipdevelopmentactivities(Leighetal.,1999).Thisindicatesthattheyarebeginningtounderstandthatleadershipisacriticalcomponentinorganizationalsuccessandinreducingoccupationalstress.Effectiveleadershiphelpstobuildtherightpsychosocialworkenvironmentthatfostersemployeestoutilizetheirabilitytowardsthesuccessoftheorganization.Poorleadershipontheotherhandcreatespoorsupervisionwhichcreatesoccupationalstressontheemployees(BlixandLee,1991).2.38QualitiesofeffectiveleadershipVirtuallyanyonewhohasworkedinanytypeofcapacity(whichistosaymostpeople)canreadilytestifyconcerningtheimportanceofthequalityofleadershipintheworkplace.Effectiveleaderscanmakethedifferencebetweenorganizationalsuccessandfailurebyvirtueoftheireffectsoftheirleadershipontheiremployeesandtheincidenceofoccupationalstressthatresults.AstudybyeubenandChiba(2017)foundthatthereisaninextricablerelationshipbetweeneffectiveleadershipandemployeewell-being.Basedonthesefindings,eubenandChina(2017,p.37)concludethat,Effectiveleadershipstylesarethereforerequiredtodevelophigh-qualityworkenvironmentsthatareconducivetoworkers\\\'well-beingandwhichultimatelycontributetoachievingorganizationalgoals.Effectiveleadershipischaracterizedbyvariousqualities.Firstisself-confidencewheretheleaderisabletotakeonanynewprojectsorroles,whichmaybeoutsidetheirnormalareaofcomfortandbelievethattheyareabletoworkreallywell.Thesecondqualityisgoodmorals.Effectiveleadersleadbyexamplemeaningthattheydefendtheirownbeliefsandideals,whicharebasedontheorganizationspoliciesandprocedures.Thirdisdecisiveness,whichmeansthattheleaderisabletoweighalltheavailableoptionstomakeacleardecision.Fourthisflexibility,whichmeansthattheleaderisabletochangetheirscheduleasprioritiesoftaskschangeorasnewtaskscomein.Anotherimportantqualityisdependability,whichmeansthattheemployeesareabletodependontheleaderorsupervisortotakecareofanyproblemsorconflictsthatarise.Patientisalsoanimportantqualitysincetheleaderneedstobeabletolistencarefullytoallthings.Patienceshouldbecoupledwithfairnessorjusticemeaningthattheleadershouldlistentobothsidesofanystoryorissuebeforegivingtheirjudgmentordecision.Aneffectiveleadershouldalsobearisk-takermeaningtheyshouldbeabletochallengetheprocessorsystembyfindinginnovativewaysfortheorganizationtochange,improveandgrowandimprove.2.39oleofasupervisorintheworkplaceSupervisorshavevariousrolesandresponsibilitiestoplayintheworkplace.Oneisdiscipline.Supervisorsareexpectedtoensurethatstaffmemberssticktocompanypoliciesandproceduresatalltimes.Thisensuresthatemployeesarekeptfocusedonproductiveactivitiesandmaintainsalevelfieldforallemployees.Thesupervisoralsohasaroleinemployeedevelopmentwheretheyareexpectedtohelpemployeesbuildskillsinareaswheretheyarelacking.Thishelpstodevelopandimprovetheperformanceofwork.Supervisorsarealsoexpectedtobepeacemakers.Amongtheirkeyrolesistoresolveworkplaceconflictsinanamicableandfairmanner.Theyneedtolistentobothsidesofthestorytodeterminewhoisrightandfindanamicablewaytoresolvetheconflict.Theconflictshouldberesolvedinaway,whichtheinvolvedpartiesunderstand.Thesupervisoralsoplaysaroleinensuringthattheorganizationsemployeesareproductivebyensuringtheyhavetherightskillsandresourcestoperformtheirduties.Theyalsoidentifyareasfortrainingofemployeesandincertainsituationsconductthetrainingbythemselves.2.40TheadverseeffectsofworkplaceambiguityItisdifficulttoquantifytheadverseeffectsofambiguityintheworkplaceincreatingstress,butitisclearthatemployeeswantandneedtimelyandaccurateguidanceconcerningwhatisexpectedofthemaswellastheiroverallroleincontributingtoachievinglargerorganizationalgoals.Whentheseissuesareunclear,employeescanexperienceelevatedstresslevels(Kirk-BrownandWallace,2009).Indeed,Osibanjo,andSalau(2016)emphasizethatroleambiguitycanexacerbateworkplacestresslevels,andthisprocessisfurtherintensifiedwhenworkloadsareespeciallyheavy.Certainly,mostpeoplehavebeencompelledtoworkharderthannormalfromtimetotimedependingontheexigenciesoftheirorganizationalneeds,butworkingharderthannormalandworkingharderthannormalwithoutdirectionareentirelydifferentissues.Asaresult,itisreasonabletosuggestthattheextenttowhichroleambiguityisallowedtopersistwillbetheextenttowhichoccupationalstresslevelsarecorrespondinglyincreased.Jobstressorssuchasroleambiguityhavebeenstudiedinawidearrayofculturalsettingsandthefollowingvariableshavebeenmostfrequentlyidentifiedasbeingpositivelycorrelatedwithroleambiguity:(1)tensionandfatigue,(2)absenteeism,(3)leavingthejobandanxiety,and(4)bothpsychologicalandphysicalstrain(El-KotandBurke,2011).Inaddition,roleambiguityhasalsobeenpositivelycorrelatedwith:(1)roleconflict:task/skillvariety,(2)locusofcontrol,(3)education,and(4)propensitytoleavetheorganization(El-KotandBurke,2011).Thevariablesthathavebeenidentifiedasbeingmostfrequentlynegativelycorrelatedwithroleambiguityinclude:(1)jobsatisfaction,(b)physicalwithdrawal,(3)supervisorysatisfaction,(4)jobperformance,(5)jobinvolvement,(6)decisionmaking,(7)jobinvolvement/engagement,(8)organizationalcommitment,(9)toleranceforconflictandgroupcohesion,and(10)reportedinfluence(El-KotandBurke,2011).Takentogether,itisapparentthatambiguityintheworkplacecanhaveprofoundimplicationsforoccupationalstresslevels,butthereareothervariablesinvolvedthatmakedeterminingwhichfactorsaremostoperativeintheprocessespeciallycomplex.Forexample,otherresearchershaveidentifiedsignificantnegativecorrelationsbetweenroleambiguityandthefollowingvariables:(1)participation,(2)taskidentity,(3)feedback,(4)jobsatisfactionacrosssub-levels,and(5)commitmentandinvolvement.Finally,studieshavealsoshownthatroleconflictandroleambiguityareconsistentlycorrelatedEl-KotandBurke,2011).Finally,theantecedentsofroleambiguityincludethefollowing:(1)workinginorganizationalboundaryroles,(2)beingaserviceemployee,(3)objectiverolerequirementsoftheemployee,(4)limitedparticipationindecisionmaking,(5)limiteduseofgoalsettingbysupervisors,(6)numberofsubordinates,and(7)levelofformalizationintheorganization(El-KotandBurke,2011).Therefore,identifyingthemostsalientvariablesthatcreateheightenedworkplaceambiguitylevelsandimplementinginterventionsthatarespecificallydesignedtoamelioratethemtothemaximumextentpossiblehelpstocreateabalancebetweentheemployeesbehavioralstrainsandproductivebehaviors.Thisisbecauseithelpstopreventcounterproductiveworkplacebehavior,whichmaybedirectedbythesupervisor.Italsohelpstoremovepsychologicalstrainswhichmayleadtoissuessuchasanger,anxiety,frustration,depression,intentiontoquit,jobdissatisfaction,cynicism,exhaustionandreductioninprofessionalefficacy.Theseworkplaceambiguityvariablesincluderoleambiguity,avoidanceofuncertainty,ortheauthoritarianleadershipstyle.Theyaffecttheperceivedjobcontrolthushelpingtomoderatelypreventworkplacestress.Thebesthumanresourcesstrategyforaddressingroleambiguityintheworkplaceistoensurethatemployeesjobdescriptionsactuallyreflecttheworktheydoratherthansomeabstractversionofwhatanorganizationbelievestheyshouldbedoing.AsBamber(2011,p.59)pointsout,Oneofthemainwaysinwhichanemployeesrolesandresponsibilitiesaremadeclearatworkisthroughtheirjobdescription.Insomecases,developingatimelyandaccuratejobdescriptionmayrequireadeskaudittoensurethatalltasksandresponsibilitiesthatarebeinghandledbyworkersareincludedintheirjobdescriptions(Bamber,2011).2.41Supervisor-TheimportanceoffeedbackTheresearchtodateconcerningtheimportanceofsupervisoryfeedbackconfirmsthatthisprocessisessentialformitigatingroleambiguityintheworkplaceandreducingoccupationalstresslevels.Asnotedabove,however,therearenumerousvariablesthatcanexacerbateroleambiguity,butsupervisoryfeedbackcanserveasausefulwaytoaddressmanyofthemeithersimultaneouslyorbasedonpriorityoftheseverityofthestressorlevels(ClarkeandCooper,2004).Fromoneperspective,supervisoryfeedbackrepresentsatypeofsocialsupportintheworkplacethathasbeenfoundtobeanessentialcomponentofjobsatisfactionandloweroccupationalstresslevels(ClarkeandCooper,2004).Inthisregard,ClarkeandCooper(2004,p.24)reportthat,Inanorganizationalsetting,socialsupportisoftenprovidedbyimmediatecolleaguesandfirst-linesupervisors;supervisorysupportisdefinedasthedegreeofconsiderationexpressedbytheimmediatesupervisorforthesubordinatesandco-workersupportasthedegreeofconsiderationexpressedbyco-workers.esearchbyClarkeandCooper(2004,p.24)identifiedfourdifferenttypesofsocialsupportinanorganizationcontextasfollows:(1)instrumentalsupport(i.e.,givingdirecthelp,oftenofapracticalnature);(2)emotionalsupport(i.e.,showinginterestin,understandingof,caringforandsympathywithapersonsdifficulties);(3)informationalsupport(i.e.,givingthepersoninformationthatmayhelphimorherdealwithproblems);and(4)appraisalsupport(i.e.,providingfeedbackaboutthepersonsfunctioningthatmayenhancehisorherself-esteem).Therefore,ongoingandmeaningfulfeedbackfromsupervisorsandfromcoworkersisimportantbecauseitfosterscommunicationwithintheorganizationandservesasaformofsocialsupport.Inaddition,timelysupervisoryfeedbackhelpstocreateworkingrelationshipsbetweenthesupervisorsandemployeessincethelatterfeelthattheyareinvolvedinthedecision-makingprocessandtheirviewsarevalued.Absentsuchfeedback,employeesareleftwonderingiftheyaresatisfyingand/orexceedingtheirperformanceobjectivesandachievingorganizationalgoals.Theseoutcomesalsodirectlycontributetoworkplaceambiguitywhichhasbeenshowntobeanantecedentofoccupationalstresstimeandagain.Thefeedbackchannelisanimportantwayofincreasingproductivityandperformanceofemployeesintheworkplace.Italsoactsasamotivatingfactorforemployeessinceitisinclusiveratherthanalienatingfortheemployees.Basedontheiranalysisofthevariousantecedentsofoccupationalstress,MijakoskiandKaradzinska-Bislimovska(2015,p.180)concludethat,Thepresenceofproperfeedback,adequatesupervisorandcoworkersupport,aswellasappropriateteamwork,leadstohighjobengagementandlowlevelofdepersonalization,whiletheirabsenceincreasesthelevelofcynicalattitudetowardswork.Moreover,timelyandhonestsupervisoryfeedbackisalsoacrucialaspectofperformancemanagementsinceitmaintainsanopenandhonestrelationshipbetweenthesupervisorandemployeethusthetwo-waydialoguewillenableperformanceappraisalstobeconductedhonestlyandthusimprovetheabilityoftheemployeestomeettheexpectationsofthecompanyororganization.2.42PreventionandfightingwithstressatworkGivenitsdocumentedexorbitanteconomiccostsandtheenormoushumantollthatisexactedbythecondition,thepreventionofworkplacestressisanimportantconsiderationforallorganizations.AsOsibanjoandSalau(2016,p.261)pointout,Highlevelsofworkplacestresscanbecomeharmfulforindividualemployeesandtheorganizationasawhole.Hence,toenhancecorporateimageandachievecompetitiveadvantage,stressmanagementandcopingstrategiesbecomeimperative.Occupationalstresscanbepreventedorminimizedbyintroducingeducationandtrainingprogramsforemployeestounderstandandrelatetooccupationalstress.Itcanalsobepreventedoramelioratedbychangingtheorganizationspoliciesandprocedurestoensurethatallrisksofoccupationalstressaremitigatedandsourcesofstresseliminated.Anotherwayofpreventingoccupationalstressistoestablishemployeeassistanceprogramstosupportemployeesundergoingoccupationalstress(andallandBuys,2013).Anin-depthstudyofoccupationalstressandefficaciousinterventionsbyichardsonandothstein(2008,p.69)definedjobstressasasituationwhereinjob-relatedfactorsinteractwiththeworkertochangehisorherpsychologicaland/orphysiologicalconditionsuchthatthepersonisforcedtodeviatefromnormalfunctioning.Thereisaninherentnotioncontainedinthisdefinitionthatwork-relatedstressorsrepresenttheoverarchingsourceofstressandthatindividualresponsestoelevatedwork-relatedstresscanmanifestinpsychological,physiological,oracombinationoftheseoutcomes(ichardsonandothstein,2008).Measuringtheefficacyofstressmanagementinterventionsisaccomplishedindifferentwaysdependingonthefocusoftheintervention.Insomecases,researchershaveevaluatedtheeffectivenessofstressmanagementinterventionsbasedontheireffectonquantifiableoutcomessuchasemployeeproductivitylevels,absenteeismrates,bloodpressurelevelsandweightgainorloss(ichardsonandothstein,2008).Inothercases,researchershaveevaluatedtheeffectivenessofstressmanagementinterventionsusingmoresubjectivecriteriasuchasemployeeengagement,moraleorjobsatisfactionlevels.egardlessoftheevaluationstrategythatisused,thereremainsasignificantamountofcontroversyconcerningwhichstressmanagementinterventionsaremosteffectiveinvarioussituationsandwhy(ichardsonandothstein,2008).Varioustypesofstressmanagementinterventionseitherseektomodifywork-relatedstressorfactors,provideemployeeswithassistanceandsupportinmitigatingtheadverseeffectsofsuchstressors,oracombinationofthesestrategies(ichardsonandothestein,2008).Basedonaconceptualframeworkdevelopedforthedesign,implementation,andevaluationofstressmanagementinterventions,interventionscanbedesignedtoaddressthreemainpointsinthestresscycle:(1)theintensityofstressorsintheworkplace,(2)theemployeesappraisalofstressfulsituations,or(3)theemployeesabilitytocopewiththeoutcomes(ichardsonandothstein,2008p.70).Theconstituentelementsofstressmanagementprogramsdifferbuttheygenerallyincludeinterventionsthatcanbecategorizedasprimary,secondaryortertiaryinitiativesasdescribedbelow:2.42.1Primaryinterventions:Thesetypesofstressmanagementinterventionsseektochangethemainsourcesofjob-relatedstress.Inthisregard,ichardsonandothstein(2011,p.70)reportthat,Examplesofprimarypreventionprogramsincluderedesigningjobstomodifyworkplacestressors,increasingworkersdecision-makingauthorityorprovidingcoworkersupportgroups.Inotherwords,primaryinterventionsarethoseintendedtoseekoutthesourceofjob-relatedstressandniptheminthebudbeforetheycanexactastress-relatedtollonworkers.Forinstance,accordingtoBamber(2011,p.42),.Primarylevelinterventionsareaimedatchangingtheworkenvironmentitselftoreduceoreliminatethecauseofthestressatitssource.Insomecases,though,changingtheworkenvironmentinsubstantivewaysisnotfeasibleduetothetypesofoccupationsthatareinvolved(e.g.,acute-carenurses,combatinfantrytroops,firefighters,amongothers)orduetotheexpensethatmaybeinvolved(Bamber,2011).Inthesetypesofcases,researchersbelievethatsecondaryinterventionsaremoreappropriateandeffectiveataddressingjob-relatedstressasdiscussedfurtherbelow.2.42.2Secondaryinterventions:Thesetypesofstressmanagementinterventionsaredesignedtominimizetheseverityofstresssymptomsbeforetheycancausemoreserioushealthissueswithworkers(ichardsonandothstein,2011,p.70).Secondarylevelinterventionsarealsodesignedtoeducateworkersconcerningvarioustypesofcopingstrategiesorskillsthatcanserveasbuffersagainststressfulworkplaceenvironmentsandprovidethemwiththetoolstheyneedtodeveloptheresiliencetheyneedtorespondinhealthierwaystojob-relatedstressors(Bamber,2011).AccordingtoSidle(2008,p.111),Cognitive-behavioralapproachesaresecondaryinterventionsthathelpemployeesrethinktheirbeliefsaboutchallengingsituations.Specifically,individualslearntorecognizehowtheirpessimisticandoftendistortedthoughtsofgloomanddoomleadtostress.Next,theylearntoreplacetheiroverlypessimisticthinkingwithmorerealisticormoreoptimisticthinking.2.42.3Tertiaryinterventions:Thesetypesofstressmanagementinterventionssuchastheaforementionedemployeeassistanceprogramsareintendedtotreatworkersstress-relatedhealthproblemswithappropriatementalhealthcarepractitioners(ichardsonandothstein,2008p.70).AccordingtoBamber(2011,p.42),Tertiarylevelinterventionsareappropriatewhensecondarylevelinterventionsareineffectiveandtheindividualisexperiencingstresssyndromeswhichareimpactingontheircapacitytobeproductiveintheworksetting,oreventoremainatwork.Althoughprimaryandtertiaryinterventionsmaybemostappropriateincertaincircumstances,secondaryinterventionsarethemostcommonlyusedworkplacestressmanagementprogramsusedatpresent,andthesetypesofinterventionsaretypicallytargetedathelpingindividualemployeesdevelopimprovedmethodsformanagingandcopingwithjob-relatedstressors.Someofthemostpopularsecondaryinterventionsformanagingandcopingwithoccupationalstressincludevariouscognitive-behavioralskillstrainingthateducateworkersconcerningtheeffectsoftheirthinkingontheirstresslevels,deep-breathingexercises,meditation,relaxation,physicalfitnessexercises,timemanagementskills,maintainingadailyjournalandsettinggoals,or,hereagain,acombinationofthesestrategies(ichardsonandothstein,2008).Accordingtoichardsonandothstein,cognitive-behavioralskillstrainingcanbeanespeciallyefficaciousandcost-effectiveinterventionforjob-relatedstress.Forexample,theseresearchersreportthat,Meditation,relaxation,anddeep-breathinginterventionsaredesignedtoenableemployeestoreduceadversereactionstostressesbybringingaboutaphysicaland/ormentalstatethatisthephysiologicaloppositeofstress(ichardsonandothstein,2008p.70).Althoughtheresearchtodateindicatesthatprimaryandsecondarylevelstressmanagementinterventionscanbeeffectiveinresolvingmildtomoderatelevelsofstress,thesestrategiesmaybelessefficaciousintreatingmoresevereanddebilitatingstresslevelsthatarelinkedwithoccupationalstress(Bamber,2011).Moreover,themoresevereanddebilitatinglevelsofstressassociatedwithoccupationalstresscanaffectworkersabilitytoperformtheirjobsoreventocontinuetheiremployment.Inthesetypesofcases,evidence-basedtertiarylevelinterventionsareneededtoassistworkersinmanagingtheirstresslevels(Bamber,2011).Whileformaltertiaryinterventionsareusuallyprovidedbyprimarycareandmentalhealthpractitioners,thereareseveralself-helpmethodsavailablethatcanbeusedinconjunctionwiththeseinterventions.Forexample,beyondtheforegoing,therearesomeother,relativelysimplestepsthatemployeescantaketomitigatetheeffectsofjob-relatedstress.Inmanycases,thesestepscanbeappliedintheworkplaceasneeded.Inthisregard,Frandsen(2010,p.61)suggeststhatpeoplewhoareexperiencingoccupationalstressshouldemployvariousself-caremeasures,includingthefollowing:Starteachdaywitharelaxingritualsuchas15minutesformeditating,journaling,stretching,orreadingsomethinginspirational;Adopthealthyeating,exercising,andsleepinghabits;Establishboundariestoavoidoverextending;Takeadailybreakandsetasidetimetocompletelydisconnect;Nourishself-creativitybychoosingfunactivitiesthathavenothingtodowithwork;and,Learntomanagestress.Althoughthesestraightforwardstressmanagementinterventionsallprovidesomedegreeofbenefits,theresearchtodateindicatesthatcognitive-behavioralbasedinterventionsprovideconsistentlygreatereffectscomparedtoothertypesofinterventions.Interestingly,though,totheextentthatadditionaltreatmentelementsareaddedtothecognitive-behavioralinterventionswastheextenttowhichtheefficacyoftheseinterventionswasreduced(ichardsonandothstein,2008).Thesefindingssuggestthatthereisnoone-size-fits-allstressmanagementinterventionstrategythatworksequallywellinallcircumstancesbutratherreinforcestheneedforindividualizedtreatmentstrategiesthatarebasedontheuniqueneedsofthetargetedemployees.Inaddition,anumberofevidence-basedinterventionshavebeendevelopedthatarespecificallydesignedtohelppreventtheonsetofoccupationalstressandbettermanagetheconditionifitdoesariseamonghelpingprofessionalswheretheworkplaceenvironmentcannotbeeasilychangedsuchasacutecarenursesassetforthinTable6below.Table6Descriptionofevidence-basedinterventionsforworkplacestressSourceDescriptionofinterventionCohen-Katzetal.(2005)Thisinterventionconsistedofan8-weekmindfulness-basedstressreductionprogramthatwasgearedtowardsimprovingrelaxation,self-care,workandfamilyrelationshipsaswellasidentifyingbetterwaysofdealingwithdifficultemotionsintheworkplace.Hayesetal.(2005)Interventionsincludedamentoringprogramdesignedtosupportminoritynursesenteringoncology;oncologynursinggrandrounds,spiritrounds,andreflectivepracticerounds;narrativesforindividualreflectiononpractice;ambulatorynursingretreatsforreflectionandrenewal;andindividualmeetingswithapsychiatricclinicalnursespecialistfornewgraduates.Adams&Putrino(2010)Anexpressivewritingworkshopencouragedself-carebypresentingparticipantswithinformationonwaystogroundexpressivewritingandparticipateinexpressivewritingexercises.Bauer-Wu(2005)etreatswereheldoutsidetheworksettingwithparticipantschoiceoffourexperientialbreak-outsessions:KeepingtheHope,whichusedart,imagery,andstorytorestorehopefulnessasaself-carepractice;ComingHometoYourBody,whichusedtherapeuticmovement;BeingPeace,whichusedmindfulnessmeditationtofosterpeaceandbalanceineverydaylife;andWhatMattersMost,whichfosteredself-reflectionandexpressionthroughcollageandwriting.etreatsalsoincludedfreeafternoontimewiththeopportunityforallparticipantstoreceiveamassage;aneveningofliveentertainmentwithsinging,dancing,andlaughing;andamorningYogaclassortheoptiontotakeawalkorsleepin.Lambert&Steward(2007)Theovernightretreatbeganwithdinnerandaneveningoffunandlaughterusingroomandtableassignmentstopairstaffthatnormallydonotinteract.Thiswasfollowedbyafulldayofteambuildingfacilitatedbyanexpert.Topicsincludedunderstandingteamdynamics,personalbehaviorstyles,communicationwithothers,andcreatingsafeenvironmentsthatfostercandidcommunication.LeBlancetal.(2007)Theinterventionincludedastart-upprogramthatwasfollowedby3-hourprogramsdeliveredonamonthlybasisforaperiodof6monthswithanintroductionandquestionnaireonworksituations,communication,andfeedback.Inaddition,programtopicsincludedbuildingsocialsupport,balancingjob-relatedinvestmentsandoutcomes,solvingproblemsthroughteamactionplanning,andidentifyingpotentialproblemsandsolutionsfordealingwithchange.Programcounselorsmetwithparticipantspriortotheprogramtogatherinformationontheorganizationsstructuresandpoliciesaswellasmanagementsperceptionofthemainsourceofjobstress.Medlandetal.(2004)Day-longretreatsheldawayfromtheclinicalareasincludedinteractiveandinformalpresentationsonwellness,bereavement,developingstressmanagementskillssuchasrelaxation,journaling,cultivatingteameffectiveness,andart-makingactivities.Participantsalsoviewedavideotapeonpositivemanagementphilosophyanddiscussedaframeworkforincorporatingstressmanagementandself-careintopractice.Practicechangestodecreaseburnoutandincreaseongoingfocusonstaffsupportatthefacilitywereimplementedbasedonideasgenerated.Source:SummarizedandadaptedfromHenry(2014,p.212)Whilesomeoccupationsareinherentlymorestressful,otherauthoritieshavealsoevaluatedtheefficacyofstressmanagementinterventionstoidentifythosethatworkbestunderdifferentcircumstanceswithotheroccupationsaswell.ArecapitulationandsummaryofthesestudiesareprovidedinTable7below.Table7ecapitulationandsummaryoftheefficacyofvariousstressmanagementinterventionsSourceMethodesultsKim,JH(2007)Meta-analysisof46experimentalstudies.Thestudieswereclassifiedaccordingtothesamplecharacteristics,thetypesandmethodsoftheinterventions,andthetypesofoutcomevariables.Sixinterventiontypesweredistinguished:(1)cognitive-behavioralintervention(CBT),(2)relaxationtechniques(T),(3)exercise(EX),(4)multimodalprograms1and2(MT1,2),and(5)organizationfocusedinterventions(OTs).Effectsizeswerecalculatedfortheoutcomecategoriesacrossinterventiontypes:psychosocialoutcome,behavioral-personalresources,physiologic,andorganizationaloutcome.Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatindividualworker-focusedinterventions(ITs)weremoreeffectivethanOTs.Asmallbutsignificantoveralleffectwasfound.AmoderateeffectwasfoundforT,andsmalleffectswerefoundforotherITs.TheeffectsizeforOTswasthesmallest.TheinterventionsinvolvingCBTandTappearedtobethepreferredmeansofreducingworker\\\'spsycho-socialandorganizationaloutcomes.Withregardtophysiologicoutcomes,Tappearedtobemosteffective.CBTappearedtobemosteffectiveinreducingpsycho-socialoutcomes.TheeffectsofOTwerenon-significant,exceptforthepsycho-socialoutcomes.Basedonthesefindings,theauthorconcludedthatallofthesestressmanagementinterventionsareeffective,butthatinterventionsinvolvingTandcognitive-behavioraltherapyaremoreeffectivethanothertypes.Sidle(2008)Systematicliteraturereviewofcurrentbestpracticesinstressmanagementinterventions.Eventhoughtheyaremoreeffectivethanotherstressmanagementinterventions,managersmayconsiderthecognitive-behavioraltechniquesmorechallengingthanotherapproachestoimplement.Typically,cognitive-behavioralinterventionsrequirethehiringofaprofessionaltoleadagroupsession.Consequently,managersmaygravitatetowardinterventionsthatareeasiertoimplementandrequireasmallerinvestmentofresources(e.g.,relaxationtraining);however,relaxationtraininginterventionsareoneofthemostpopularapproachestostressmanagement.Indeed,relaxationtechniquesareperceivedasoneoftheeasiestandleastexpensiveapproachestoimplement,primarilybecausetheycanbeself-taughtwithDVDsortheinternet.ichardsonandothstein(2008)Meta-analysisof36experimentalstudiesrepresenting55differentstressmanagementinterventions.Thetotalsamplesizeofthemeta-analysiswas2,847;oftheparticipants,59%werefemale,meanagewas35.4,andaveragelengthofinterventionwas7.4weeks.Interventionswerecodedascognitive-behavioral,relaxation,organizational,multimodal,oralternative.Analysesbasedonthesesubgroupssuggestedthatinterventiontypeplayedamoderatingrole.Cognitive-behavioralprogramsconsistentlyproducedlargereffectsthanothertypesofinterventions,butifadditionaltreatmentcomponentswereaddedtheeffectwasreduced.Withinthesampleofstudies,relaxationinterventionsweremostfrequentlyused,andorganizationalinterventionscontinuedtobescarce.Effectswerebasedmainlyonpsychologicaloutcomevariables,asopposedtophysiologicalororganizationalmeasures.KowalskiandHarmon(2009)Mixed-methodactionresearchwasusedtoevaluatetheeffectivenessofamulti-yearcognitive-behavioralstressmanagementinterventioncalledtheWorkplaceStressandAggressionProjectwith3,000employeesat11pilotsitesinDepartmentofVeteransAffairstertiaryhealthcarefacilities.Thecognitive-behavioralstressmanagementinterventionsthatwereimplementedpursuanttothisinitiativewerefoundsuperiortotheothertypesofstressmanagementinterventionsthathadbeenusedbytheDepartmentofVeteransAffairsandtheresearchersconcludethatcognitive-behavioralinterventionsrepresentthebestapproachformitigatingandtreatingstressmanagementintheworkplace.Stoughetal.(2014)Citingtheenormouscostsandadverseeffectsofoccupationalstress,theseresearchersemphasizetheneedfortime-andcost-effectiveinterventionsthathaveprovenefficacyinmitigatingstresslevels.Tothisend,Stoughandhisassociatesreportthatnutritionalinterventions,especiallyusingBgroupvitamins,hasbecomeincreasinglyrecognizedasaviablestressmanagementintervention.Thestudywasarandomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled,parallel-groupsclinicaltrialinvolving200subjectsrandomizedtoacontrolgrouporreceiveBlackmoresExecutiveBStressFormulaorplacebodailyforaperiodof6months.ThisstudyexaminedtheeffectsofBgroupvitaminsonworkplacestressandmoodvariableswithasampleoffull-timeemployedolderadultswhosubjectivelyreportfeelingstressed.ThefindingsthatemergedfromthisstudyconfirmedthatefficaciousinterventionstargetedatreducingoccupationalstresslevelsusingdietarysupplementationwithBgroupvitaminsisaneconomicallyviableandsustainableintervention.CooperandCartwright(1999)Emphasizingtheurgencyoftheneed,theseresearchersuseacontentanalysisofrelevantstudiestoidentifyinterventionsthathavebeenproveneffectiveinreducingworkplacestresslevels.Basedontheiranalysisofthestressmanagementinterventionsdevelopedtodate,theseresearchersconcludethatalthoughindividualcounselingandstressmanagementtrainingcanserveasusefulcomponents,organization-wideinitiativesareneededtoensurethatworkplacestressorsareaddressedfromastructuralpointofview.eidandomans(2014)NotingapaucityoftimelyandrelevantstudiesconcerningoccupationalstresslevelsamongAfricanAmericansingeneralandAfricanAmericanmalesinparticular,theseresearchersevaluatedthedegreetowhichacculturationstrategy(traditionalistbeliefs,traditionalistbehavior,assimilationistbeliefsandassimilationistbehaviors)measuredbytheMeasurementofAcculturationStrategiesforPeopleofAfricanDescent(whichhasknownvalidityandreliability)affectsperceivedjobstressasmeasuredbytheJobStressSurveyinasampleof87employedAfricanAmericanprofessionals.Thefindingsthatresultedfromthisstudyfailedtoidentifyarelationshipbetweentraditionalacculturationstrategiesandoccupationalstresslevelssuggestingthatthesubjectswhousetraditionaliststrategiesmayeitherexperiencelessstressandmoresupport.Thisfindingreinforcestheimportanceoftraditionalacculturativecopingstrategyasaprotectiveresourceagainstperceivedstress.Individualswithtraditionalacculturativecopingstrategiesmaybemoreawareofandunderstandingofthreatstoself-concept,whichisalsoprotective.Basedonthesefindings,theresearchersalsoemphasizetheneedforadditionalstudiesusingrace-relatedvariables.Ekman(2015)Usingacasestudyapproach,thisresearchercitesthelackofrelevantresearchintooccupationalstresslevelsamonglawenforcementauthoritiesincludingthosetaskedwithjuvenilejustice.Thequalitativethree-phasecasestudyfocusedona16-hourmindfulnessmeditationstrategycalledCultivatingEmotionalBalancepilotstressmanagementinterventionfor50juvenilejusticeofficersintwosettingsinSanMateoCounty,California.Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatempathytrainingusingvignettes,themindfulnessskillsincludingbreathingexercises,andthemotivationexerciseswereespeciallyeffectiveinreducingoccupationalstresslevelsamongthispopulationofjuvenilejusticeofficers.Theresultsofthisstudyindicatethatstrengtheningempathylevelsandprovidingjuvenilejusticeofficerswithtoolssuchasrelaxationandmeditationareespeciallyvaluableadditionstostressmanagementinterventions.andallandBuys(2013)Usingasystematicreviewoftherelevantliterature,theseresearchersprovideacomprehensivebackgroundconcerningtheseverityofoccupationalstressandthetollitexactsonindividualsandorganizations.LiketheEkman(2015studyreviewedabove,thisstudyalsofocusedonmitigatingoccupationalstresslevelsamonglawenforcementofficers.Theseresearchersfoundthatstressmanagementthataredesignedtoaddressindividualfactorsbyprovidingemployeeswithtrainingandtoolssuchasteachingthemtocontrolstressresponsesusingbehavioralself-control,biofeedback,meditationandabdominalbreathing,progressivevisualizationandcognitiveprocessingareregardedaseffectiveevidence-basedtreatmentstrategies.Thesetypesofinterventionsaredesignedtominimizestressresponsesbycontrollingthought,physiologicalandbehavioralresponsestojob-relatedstressors.Likewise,interventionssuchascognitivebehavioraltherapyalsohavedemonstratedefficacy.McCratyetal.(2003)Thepurposeofthisrandomizedexperimentalstudywastoexaminetheeffectsofaworkplace-basedstressmanagementprogramonbloodpressure,emotionalhealth,andworkplace-relatedmeasuresin38hypertensiveemployeesofaglobalinformationtechnologycompany.Thesubjectswererandomlyassignedtoacontrolgroupwhichreceivednointerventionoragroupthatreceivedthestress-reductionintervention.Thetreatmentgroupparticipatedina16-hourprogram,whichincludedinstructioninpositiveemotionrefocusingandemotionalrestructuringtechniquesintendedtoreducesympatheticnervoussystemarousal,stress,andnegativeaffect,increasepositiveaffect,andimproveperformance.Learningandpracticeofthetechniqueswasenhancedbyheartratevariabilityfeedback,whichhelpedparticipantslearntoself-generatephysiologicalcoherence,abeneficialphysiologicmodethatareassociatedwithincreasedheartrhythmcoherence,physiologicentrainment,parasympatheticactivity,andvascularresonance.Bloodpressure,emotionalhealth,andworkplace-relatedmeasureswerealsoevaluatedassessedbeforeand3monthsaftertheprogram.Thisstudyfoundthatthetreatmentgroupexhibitedameanadjustedreductionof10.6mmHginsystolicbloodpressureandof6.3mmHgindiastolicbloodpressure.3-monthspost-intervention.Thereductioninsystolicbloodpressurewasregardedassignificantinrelationtothecontrolgroup.Thetreatmentgroupalsodemonstratedimprovementsinemotionalhealth,includingsignificantreductionsinstresssymptoms,depression,andglobalpsychologicaldistressandsignificantincreasesinpeacefulnessandpositiveoutlook.educedsystolicbloodpressurewascorrelatedwithreducedstresssymptoms.Inaddition,thetrainedemployeesdemonstratedsignificantincreasesinthework-relatedscalesofworkplacesatisfactionandvalueofcontribution.Theseresultsindicatethatabriefworkplacestressmanagementinterventioncanproduceclinicallysignificantreductionsinbloodpressureandimproveemotionalhealthamonghypertensiveemployees.Theimplicationsofthesefindingsarethatsuchinterventionsmayproduceahealthierandmoreproductiveworkforce,enhancingperformanceandreducinglossestotheorganizationresultingfromcognitivedecline,illness,andprematuremortality.KinmanandJones(2005)Thisstudyinvestigatedlayrepresentationsofworkstressusingsemi-structuredinterviewswith45individualsfromarangeofoccupations.Themeaningofoccupationalstress,itsantecedentsandoutcomes,andwaysbywhichitmaybemanagedwereexamined.Dominantfactorswereestablishedthroughtheuseofthematiccontentanalysis.Similaritiesanddifferenceswerefoundbetweenlayandprofessionaldiscoursesonworkstress.Theresultsthatemergedfromthisstudyindicatethatlayrepresentationsofoccupationalstressaremulti-faceted.Thereremainsalackofconsensus,however,concerninghowparticipantsinterpretedtheconcept:adiverserangeofpersonal,environmental,andsocietalfactorswashighlighted.Adifferent(andarguablymorecomplex)rangeofdefinitionsofjobstressandthemannerinwhichitimpactsonindividualswasrevealedthanhasbeenreportedinpreviousstudies.Thecausesofstressatworkwereperceivedasbeingpredominantlyorganizational,buttheimpactofstressontheemployeewasmoresalientthanorganizationaloutcomes.Secondaryandtertiarystressmanagementtechniqueswerethoughttobemoreeffectivethaninterventionsdesignedtopreventstressatwork.Intervieweeswithlinemanagementresponsibilityweremorelikelytoemphasizeindividualresponsibilityformanagingstress,mostothersmaintainedthattheindividualandtheorganizationareequallyresponsible.Saksviketal.(2003)Thestudyevaluatedsevendifferentindividualandorganizationalstressmanagementinterventions.DataforthestudywasobtainedfromasampleusedasapartoftheevaluationofaNorwegiannationalinterventionprogramcalled`HealthatWork.ThestudywasconductedinthreeDifferententerprises(twofromthepublicsector(theNorwegianPostalServiceandamunicipality)andthelocalgovernmentofadistrictthatincludedamid-sizedNorwegiantownandonefromtheprivatesector(ashoppingmall).Interviewswereconductedin22postoffices,12organizationalunits(i.e.,carehomesandlocaladministrativeunits)ofaNorwegianmunicipality,andin10shopsinashoppingmall.Theinterviewstookplacebeforeandaftertheinterventions.Thefollowingkeyprocessfactorswereidentified:(1)theabilitytolearnfromfailureandtomotivateparticipants;(2)multi-levelparticipationandnegotiation,anddifferencesinorganizationalperception;(3)insightintotacitandinformalorganizationalbehavior;(4)clarificationofrolesandresponsibilities,especiallytheroleofmiddlemanagement;and(5)competingprojectsandreorganization.Basedontheresultsthatemergedfromthisambitiousstudy,theseresearchersconcludethatquantitativetechniquesaloneoftenfailtocapturethemagnitudeandthemeaningofaccomplishinginterventionswithinorganizations;however,quantitativeinvestigationsarecrucialindocumentingthesignificanceofimprovingoccupationalhealthinordertoinfluencethosestakeholderswhohavethepowertoinitiatechange.Gyllenstenetal.(2005)Thisqualitativestudyoftwomalesandthreefemalesexaminedtheattitudesoffinanceorganizationstowardsworkplacestressandstressinterventions.Semi-structuredinterviewswereusedandsevenindividuals,eachrepresentingtheirorganization,participatedinthestudy.InterpretativePhenomenologicalAnalysis(IPA)wasusedtoanalyzethedatathatresulted.ThegoalofIPAistoexploretheinsiderviewsoftheparticipants,andthiswastheaimofthecurrentstudy.InIPAitisassumedthatthereisanassociationbetweenwhattheparticipantsaysandwhattheythink.IPAseekstocapturethemeaningsoftheparticipantsaccounts,andthisisdonethroughaprocessofinterpretativeanalysis.AnadditionalbenefitofIPAisthatitfacilitatesthediscoveryofrarethemeswithintheareaofinvestigation.Theoverarchingfindingthatemergedfromthisstudywasthatsubjectsheldstrongviewsthatpeoplewhoseekcounselingforoccupationalstress,irrespectiveoftheseverityoftheirconditions,maybeperceivedashavingsometypeofmentalillness.Thestigmathatisassociatedwiththisperceptionisbelievedtopreventmanyemployeeswhoaremostinneedofefficaciousstressmanagementinterventionsfromseekingassistanceintheworkplace.Thefindingsunderscoretheneedforadditionaleducationofemployeestoensurethattheyrecognizethesignsandsymptomsofjob-relatedstressandfeelcomfortableinseekingassistancefortheseproblems.Bironetal.(2016)Theseresearchersusedanadaptedstudydesigntoevaluatetheeffectivenessofaninterventionexposureandtocreateanartificialcontrolandinterventiongroups.Thisstudyalsoincludedlongitudinaldata(i.e.,twoassessments)withaddedprocessmeasuresattime,twogatheredfromthreecomplexparticipatoryinterventionprojectsinCanadainahospitalandauniversity.Structuralequationmodelingwasusedtoexplorethespecificworkingmechanismsofparticularinterventionsonstressoutcomes.Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthathigherexposuretointerventionsaimingtomodifytasksandworkingconditionsreduceddemandsandimprovedsocialsupport,butnotjobcontrol,whichinturn,reducedpsychologicaldistress.Exposuretointerventionsaimingtoimproverelationshipswasnotrelatedtopsychosocialrisks.Moststudiescannotexplainhowinterventionsproducetheireffectsonoutcomes,especiallywhentherearemultipleconcurrentinterventionsdeliveredinseveralcontexts.Thisstudyadvancesknowledgeonprocessevaluationbyusinganadaptedstudydesigntocapturetheactiveingredientsofmulti-componentinterventionsandsuggestingsomemechanismsbywhichtheinterventionsproducetheireffectsonstressoutcomes.Inaddition,thesefindingsalsoprovideanillustrationofhowtoconductprocessevaluationandrelateexposurelevelstoobservedoutcomes.Pignataetal.(2016)Theseresearchersusedthesocial-exchangetheoreticalframeworktoexaminetheeffectofemployeesawarenessofstressreductioninterventionsontheirlevelsofpsychologicalstrain,jobsatisfaction,organizationalcommitment,perceptionsofseniormanagementtrustworthinessandproceduraljustice.Theresearcherspresentlongitudinalpaneldatafrom869employeeswhocompletedquestionnairesattwotimepointsat13Australianuniversities.Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatemployeeswhoreportedanawarenessofstress-reductioninterventionsundertakenattheiruniversityscoredloweronpsychologicalstrainandhigheronjobsatisfactionandcommitmentthanthosewhowereunawareoftheinterventions.Theresultsindicatethatsimplytheawarenessofstressinterventionscanbelinkedtopositiveemployeeoutcomes.Thestudyfurtherrevealedthatseniormanagementtrustworthinessandproceduraljusticemediatetherelationshipbetweenawarenessandemployeeoutcomes.Bowenetal.(2014)Thisstudyusedanonlinesurveytocollectopinionsfromarchitects(n=3,025),civilengineers(n=1,842),quantitysurveyors(n=1,449),andprojectandconstructionmanagers(n=3,359)inSouthAfrica.Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatamajorityoftherespondentsexperiencehighlevelsofstressatwork.Architects(morethanengineers,quantitysurveyors,andprojectandconstructionmanagers)andfemale(morethanmale)professionalsfeelstressed.Psychologicaleffectsofworkplacestressincludethefeelingofnotbeingappreciatedbyothersforajobwell-done,feelingdissatisfiedwithonesownperformanceatwork,andfeelingtenseatwork.Physiologicaleffectsincludedisturbancestousualsleeppatterns,difficultyinrelaxingafterhours,anddifficultyinconcentrating.Sociologicaleffectsincludeastrainonfamilylife,socialactivities,andsocialrelationships.Awiderangeofpositivecopingmechanismsareusedbytherespondents,includingphysicalexercise,spendingtimewithfamilyandfriends,traveling,watchingtelevisionandmovies,surfingandwatersports,jogging,archery,meditationandprayer,yoga,cycling,shooting,fishing,hikingandcamping,golf,gardening,squash,cooking,reading,card-playing,model-building,wininganddining,photography,woodwork,gaming,listeningtomusic,participatinginmartialarts,motorbikeriding,44driving,andtryingtogetmoresleep.LemaireandWallace(2010)TheseresearchersusedamixedmethodsstrategytoexplorefactorsrelatedtophysicianwellnesswithinalargehealthregioninWesternCanada.Thestudyfocusedonthecopingstrategiesthatphysiciansuseinresponsetowork-relatedstress.Thequalitativecomponentexploresphysiciansselfreportedcopingstrategiesthroughopenendedinterviewsof42physiciansrepresentingdiversemedicalspecialtiesandsettings(91%responserate).Themajorthemesextractedfromthequalitativeinterviewswereusedtoconstruct12surveyitemsthatwereincludedinthecomprehensivequantitativequestionnaire.Questionnairesweresenttoalleligiblephysiciansinthehealthregionwith1178completedsurveys(40%responserate.)Questionnaireitemswereusedtomeasurehowoftenphysiciansdrawonthevariouscopingstrategies.Feelingsofburnoutwerealsomeasuredinthesurveyby5itemsfromtheEmotionalExhaustionsubscaleoftheevisedMaslachBurnoutInventory.Themajorthemesthatemergedfromthedataanalysisincludedthecopingstrategiesthatthesubjectsusedintheworkplace(i.e.,workingthroughstress,talkingwithco-workers,takingatimeout,usinghumor)andafterwork(e.g.,exercise,quiettime,spendingtimewithfamily).Analysisofthequestionnairedatashowedthreeoftenusedworkplacecopingstrategieswerepositivelycorrelatedwithfeelingemotionallyexhausted(i.e.,keepingstresstooneself(r=.23),concentratingonwhattodonext(r=.16),andgoingonasifnothinghappened(r=.07)).Somelessoftenusedworkplacecopingstrategies(i.e.,takingatimeout)andallthoseusedafterworkwerenegativelycorrelatedwithfrequencyofemotionalexhaustion.Basedonthesefindings,theseresearchersconcludethatphysiciansselfreportedcopingstrategiesarenotallcreatedequalintermsoffrequencyofuseandcorrelationwithfeelingemotionallyexhaustedfromoneswork.Theresearchersalsoconcludethatthesefindingscanbeintegratedintopracticalphysicianstressreductioninterventions.Harknessetal.(2005)Thisstudyuseddiscourseanalysistoexplorethewayinwhichemployeesunderstandworkstress.Twenty-twofemaleclericalworkersinaCanadiancityparticipatedinfocusgroupmeetingswheretheytalkedaboutandmadesenseoftheirexperiencesofworkstress.Thewomensaccountswereanalyzedusingdiscourseanalysismethods(i.e.,anexaminationofhowtalkisconstructed).Thefindingsthatemergedfromthisstudyshowedthatsimplytalkingaboutbeingstressedprovidesasociallyacceptablewayofexpressingdiscomfortandregainingasenseofimportancethatislostthroughfeelingunder-valuedandunderappreciatedintheorganization.Incontrast,admittingtobeingunabletocopewithstresswasconsideredtobeabnormal.Thestressdiscoursefostersasenseofhelplessnessandambiguitybynotacknowledgingexternalinfluencesonclericalworkersexperiences,suchastheirplacewithinthepowerstructureoftheorganization,andbylimitingtheirsenseofagencyandcontroloverproblemsexperiencedatwork.Theimplicationsofthesefindingsfororganizationalcultureandinterventionsincludetheneedforemployerstobeconsciousofthemessagesbeingsenttoemployeesabouthownegativeemotionsordistressingexperiencesatworkaretobeaddressed(i.e.,howstressistobemanaged).Therecommendationsthatwereprovidedbytheseresearchersincludedtheneedfortheexaminationofalternativediscoursesthataimtoimproveconditionsatwork.Howard(2008)Usingasystematicreviewoftherelevantliteratureandacasestudyofsupervisoryinterventionsforoccupationalstressmanagement,thisresearcherdrewonconceptsfromthefieldofpositivepsychologysuchasworkengagement,senseofcoherence,self-efficacy,flowandresiliencehasbeguntoprovidedetailedunderstandingofworkershappiness,healthandbettermentBasedonthefindingsthatresultedfromthisstudy,Howardconcludedthattherelationshipbetweensupervisorandsuperviseeneedstobeoneinwhichtrustandempathyarebuiltfromtheoutset.Inaddition,itisalsoimportanttoconsiderwhentoapplythesemethods.Therearemanyopportunitiesforthesupervisortodoso.Opportunitiesmayincludecasediscussion,video-oraudio-tapereview,reviewingsuccess,learningneedsassessment,evaluationprocesses,professionalcompetencereviews,andteamworkanalysis.Dedicatedsessionsmaybeseenasimportantfromtimetotime,especiallywhenreviewsofthesupervisionhavebeenplanned.Adedicatedsessioncouldalsobecomeanopportunityforacelebrationofachievement.Gunn(2013)Thestudyusedacasestudyandhistoricprospectivemixed-methoddesign,comprisedofsixhomecareunitsinaNorwegianmunicipality(n=138respondents;responserate=76.2%or17informants.Thestudyincludedquantitativeestimations,registerdataofsickleave,atimelineofsignificanteventsandchanges,andqualitativedescriptionsofemployeeappraisalsoftheirworksituationgatheredthroughsemi-structuredinterviewsandopensurveyresponses.Thefindingsofthestudyshowedthattheworkenvironmentinterventionswereingeneralregardedaspositivebythehomecareworkers;allunits,though,weresimultaneouslysubjectedtosubstantialcontextualinstability,involvingnewworkprograms,newtechnology,restructurings,unitmergers,andmanagementreplacements,perceivedbythehomecareworkerstobemajorsourcesofstress.Thesefindingssuggestthatconcurrentchangesinducedthroughrationalizationresultedinnegativeexposureeffectsthatnegatedpositiveworkenvironmentinterventioneffects,causinganoveralldeterioratedworksituationforthehomecareworkers.inaldietal.(2010)Thisrandomized,controlledstudyevaluatedtheeffectivenessintheimprovementofthepsychicandsymptomaticstress-relateddisordersbymeansofradio-electricstimulationonsomeauricularreflexpointswithadevicenamedtheradio-electricasymmetricconveyer(EAC).Thestudywasconductedon124subjectswithpsychologicaldistresssymptomsthatwereassessedbytheSymptomaticCheckList-90pre-andpost-intervention.Afterrandomization,twogroupswerecreated:agrouptreatedwitheffectiveEACandagroupthatunderwentthesametreatmentwithdisarmedEAC(theplacebogroup).ThefindingsthatresultedfromthisstudyshowedthattherewasasignificantreductioninSCL-90scoresinthetreatedgroupcomparedwiththeplacebogroup.Theresultsofthepsychometrictestsshowedthatthesubjectswhounderwenteffectivetherapyshowedastatisticallysignificant(p

Continuous production of cortisol may also decrease the availability of tryptophan, the precursor for serotonin, resulting in depression, other mood disorders, and changes in appetite and sleep. Hyperactivity of the stress response has been implicated in the pathophysiology of melancholic depression, anxiety, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders, substance abuse, eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, and cardiovascular disease. Conversely, hyporeactivity of the stress response has been associated with disorders such as atypical depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, hypothyroidism, and obesity (Selhub, 2002).

It has been shown that there is a definite connection between chronic stress and physical and psychological responses in the body. Stress in small amounts is fine, but chronic stress over a long extended period of time has been shown to manifest itself in a number of different physical and physiological aliments. It is believed by many experts that people should take steps to decrease their stress levels in…

Job Stress Levels and its Effect on Production

Mitsuka Technologies Inc.

Mitsuka Technologies Inc. is involved in the manufacture of auto parts and components for one of the major automobile manufacturers in the world. As part of a quality and efficiency audit, a team has been assembled to assess the areas that need improvement to increase production, and ultimately profitability. Job stress is a concern for all levels of an organization, individual, group team, and the organization as a whole. This study will assess the level, sources of job stress and the effects that it has on Mitsuka Technologies Inc. In terms of quality, efficiency and productivity.

Studies have shown that stress effects an organization in many very real and measurable ways and that identifying the sources of stress and developing a plan to eliminate or reduce these stressors can have an impact on productivity and profitability. On an individual…

American today, works more that an American worker of even a generation ago. A 1999 Government report stated that workers worked 8% more hours than the previous generation. This translates to an average workweek of 47 hours. Twenty percent of workers today work more than 49 hours. The work place has been constantly changing -- the revolution from agronomies to industrialization having had its origins in the industrial revolution. Most of the industrialized regions of the world have attained better standards with significant improvements in quality of life as a result of the industrial revolution. In turn, however, the workplace became more formal and restrictive. Any personal skills of an individual worker were generally ignored. These abilities were not essential a worker's role in the "new" work environment.

Mass production was the next phase of change in the workplace. It made standardization the norm. Greater emphasis was placed on conforming…

CISM Program Surry Nuclear Power Plant

What is CISM?

Why is a CISM program necessary for the agency?

Agency description, community, and social context

Prevention and Interventions

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Interventions

Chronic health and innovative approaches

Cultural Issues

Proposed Budget .17

Critical incident stress management plays an important role in assuring the psychological resilience necessary for those who are exposed to a traumatic incident. This proposal outlines a program to add mental Health Services to the existing emergency management plan for the Surry Power Plant. The current plan does not address mental health issues, and this is an important need that will need to be considered in the future. The current plan will modify the existing plan through the addition of mental health services for the community.

Proposal: CISM Program

What is CISM?

A critical incident is any event that produces stress or trauma to personnel that are directly or…

Health Self-Assessment

Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. Neuroplasticity reflects the brain's ability to transform itself. This is an important concept, because it means that the brain is constantly changing, in that there is no constant self. The brain can thus be "re-wired," as a consequence of this neuroplasticity. When considering the brain and its role in our health, this is important because as the brain regenerates, we have the opportunity to change it. We do not need to be who we were, for example. Some of this is fairly common sense -- new experiences can change us -- but neuroscience has allowed this to be proven, that our brains are not set entities but can be transformed. Even more important is the finding that we can change our own brains over time with training (Draganski, et al., 2004).

Stress is one of the major influences on the…

9. Supporting organizational teams provides employees with a medium to discuss concerns and problems as well as an opportunity to help discharge emotional pressure. Sharing in a group serves as a catharsis and stress release system.

10. Guarantying employees have the freedom to work effectively as well as ensuring they sense their work contributes to a greater purpose decreases workplace stress (Raitano and Kleiner).

Secondary Prevention

hen implementing secondary prevention method, the organization moderates the stress response. Some ways the organization may apply these strategies include:

1. Aerobic exercise and weight training as well as other physical fitness techniques and/or sports opportunities help monitor the body's adverse reactions to stress.

2. Providing access to relaxation training can contribute to reducing workplace stress. hen the individual participates in exercises like deep breathing and engages in mental imagery; focusing on a relaxing environment, this helps enhance his moods and permit him to…

demands of contemporary society and the accelerated pace that contribute to stress in the home, office, or workplace. By sheer economic necessity, organizations and individuals must be ready at all times to glean as much productivity per worker per day as possible. The complexity of the modern workplace combined with the realities of life have consequences -- stress (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010). But thinking of stress as only an inhibiting or negative factor may not always be correct -- in fact, there are numerous positive results of stress that can increase attention to detail, ideation and creativity, and increased output (Linden, 2006).

Stress is clearly an adaptive response to stimuli -- external or internal. It is the body's reaction to events that can be distributing, discomfiting, or threatening. When humans perceive such an event, chemicals are released from the brain that can cause elevated heart rate, greater sensitivity to…

stresses and challenges facing inmate families, especially children? Children of imprisoned parents suffer the most.

Children whose parents are imprisoned face adverse impacts. Criminal justice system focuses more on the individual guilt than the adversities that are faced by the children. It is important that the criminal justice system should keep in mind the effects that are seen in the children during their parents' imprisonment, release as well as trails and arrest systems. One of the main changes that are faced by the children includes a great change in the attitudes of the society as the children are treated in al ill manner. Being on an outside world, as compared to the world behind bars, the children are treated as inmate facing much harsher conditions created by the societies. When parents are imprisoned, children of the family, no matter how young or how old have to accept the responsibility of…

STRESS THIS ENOUGH).

The Media industry has a severe influence on the masses and people often end up being unable to differentiate between normal attitudes and attitudes that they take on because the media wants them to do so. The way that women and men are shown in television commercials has drawn significant attention from the general public and has made it possible for many to acknowledge that advertisements can generate provocative arguments. hile most people realize that it is essential for the media industry to use gender roles as a tool to encourage particular viewers to buy products, it is surely difficult to look away as some commercials tend to be discriminatory and to induce certain thoughts in individuals watching them.

In order to gain a better understanding of gender roles and their relationship with the media industry, one first needs to consider advertised products and the concept of…

.....backed by other research works, is chiefly grounded in Luby and coworkers' 2013 research project titled "The Effects of Poverty on Childhood Brain Development: The Mediating Effect of Caregiving and Stressful Life Events". It was obtained from EBSCOhost's database via a search activity, utilizing the expression "poverty and the brain".

Poverty during the early childhood stage of life has an adverse effect on the development of the individual's brain, as indicated by school-goers' MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans (Lipina & Colombo, 2009; Lende, 2012). That environmental stimuli serve to enhance the production of hippocampal cells within lab animals in comparison to animals subject to relatively rare stimuli is an established fact ("Poverty, neglect in childhood...", 2013). This research work aimed at ascertaining whether or not the early childhood income-needs ratio influences school age kids' brain development and at examining the mediating factors of the abovementioned influence.

For analyzing the impacts…

Cardiac Stress Response: The Use of Anesthetic Technique to Promote Positive Outcome; Analyzing the Pros and Cons of Technique

Cardiac surgery by nature elicits a powerful stress response resulting from activation of stress hormones including epinephrine, norpinephine and cortisol hormones among others. Surgical trauma and blood loss may contribute to this stress response. Some surgeons have suggested that cardio pulmonary bypass surgery in and of itself activates an inflammatory response that results in a stress reaction.

The role of the anesthesiologist in cardiac surgery is to as much extent as possible, to reduce the stress response that results form cardiac surgery. Stress response can be mitigated by a variety of anesthetic technique, including use of opioids and epidural anesthesia. These ideas are explored in greater detail below.

Cardiac Stress Response: The Use of Anesthetic Technique to Promote Positive Outcome; Analyzing the Pros and Cons of Technique

INTRODUCTION stress response may…

The first step in project management involves identifying the requirements. The second step is establishment of a clear and achievable objective. The third step is finding a balance for the competing demands for quality, scope, time and cost. Finally, the fourth step in project management is the adaptation of the specifications, plans and approach to the various concerns and expectations of the client. It is necessary that the manager understand the cultural, social, international, political and physical environmental concerns of a project as "virtually all projects are planned and implemented..." (a Guide to the Project Management ody of Knowledge, 2004) within these contexts. Required interpersonal skills of the manager in project management include those as follows:

Effective communication;

Influencing the organization;

Leadership

Motivation;

Negotiations with conflict management; and Problem-solving. (a Guide to the Project Management ody of Knowledge, 2004)

The project management system is defined as the "set of tools,…

Listening to Music on orker Productivity:

Music can basically serve various purposes with some of these purposes being fulfilled at the individual level while others at the level of the society. For an individual, music can be a platform for expressing emotions, promoting relaxation, offering stimulation, facilitating mood change, and being a source of comfort. In some case, music can be used to entertain, in therapy, improve the effect of the other arts, and offer aesthetic enjoyment. In the past few years, there have been increased concerns and analyses regarding the impact of music on work quality and worker productivity. This is primarily because workers tend to listen to music to accomplish certain purposes while doing their work. hile some workers like to listen to music when they are seemingly losing focus, others listen to music when involved in increasingly repetitive job or when working in a noisy or too…

Military Children and the Effects of Long Deployments on Them

Over the last several years, the children of parents who are serving in the military are facing increasing amounts of scrutiny. This is because one or both of their parents are being sent on long deployments to Afghanistan. These shifts are directly resulting in them and their caregivers having to make dramatic adjustments. (Wells, 2012)

According to a study conducted by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), they found that their ability to adjust will involve the family situation, age and their environment. These factors are leading to some adapting more effectively than others. Evidence of this can be seen with observations from the report which says, "Children's reactions to deployment-related parental absence vary by age, developmental stage, and other individual and family factors. While young children are likely to exhibit externalizing behavior such as anger and attention difficulties, school-age…

Working Night Shift and Getting Cancer

The increasing rate of women acquiring breast cancer disease has been an alarming issue in the medical history of cancer prevention and studies. The many research and studies conducted by medical professionals on breast cancer disease have found a number of cancer-causing habits and lifestyles. Among those that have been examined and found as risk factors of breast cancer on women is night-shift work.

Regularly working in night shift as a health-hazardous cause of breast cancer has been investigated by several studies of different cancer research institutions. Almost all studies were carried out based from employment histories of women diagnosed of breast cancer. In a population-based study conducted by Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, it was found that women who regularly work at night are at 60% risk of developing breast cancer. The most significant risk factor to this is the exposure to bright…

Student Stress

he education to employment paradigm in Canada and around the world is stressful enough. However, stress really needs to be addressed and dealt with before that transition even takes place or even starts. Indeed, if students are unable to manage the stress of school, they will be ill-prepared for the work environment when they reach it. Even when comparing two different countries like the United States and Canada, the statement remains true although the manifestations and patterns will be different in those two countries or any other set of countries being compared. Given that, preparing students in advance of that transition to manage stress is the wise course of action. his report will offer the dimensions that will be analyzed, the rationale for the focus, a brief discussion of the matter from a societal/sociological perspective, a discussion of the theoretical frameworks involved and a brief annotated bibliography using…

Post- Traumatic Stress as a Psychological Effect of the 9/11 ombings to Americans

On September 11, 2001, America and the whole world witnessed the most recent terrorist attack of a free, democratic country, wherein the World Trade Center Towers in New York City collapsed after two planes had crashed towards the two towers. The said incident was a terrorist attack by Osama bin Laden and his terrorist group Al Qaeda in Afghanistan, and the said terrorist attack resulted to thousands of deaths, which are mostly composed of people inside the building and within its perimeters. In addition to the numerous deaths and physical injuries that the attack had caused, great damage also resulted with the destruction of the World Trade Center Towers. Indeed, the terrorist attack in America had resulted to considerable material and human damage, and these dangerous results as caused by the attack had prompted that U.S. government…

Therapeutic Massage on Elderly, Grieving Widows

The prosperity of a country is in accordance with its treatment of the aged," states an ancient Jewish Proverb ("Massage for the Mature Adult," 2001). This is an honorable and true statement. Too often many of our elderly people's needs are not noticed or attended to by family, friends, or medical practitioners. This is especially true for older women whose husbands have died.

Widowhood can have a tremendous impact on the health of older women (Ferraro, 1989; owling, 1987; Gass & Chang, 1989). The death of a spouse or partner has been described as the most disruptive and difficult role transition that an individual confronts throughout the life course (Lopata, 1987). In the United States, over 49% or 8.4 million women over the age of 65 are widows (radsher, 2000). Houdin (1993) states that "although the literature abounds with subjective pieces concerning bereavement, little…

Domestic Violence on Children

Many people throughout the world have traditionally believed that women's natural roles were as mothers and wives and considered women to be better suited for childbearing and homemaking than for involvement in the public life of business or politics. This popular belief that women were somehow intellectually inferior to men, based in large part on religious authority, has led many societies throughout the world to limit women's education to learning domestic skills and relegating them to a second-class citizen status. By and large, the world has been run by well-educated, upper-class men who controlled most positions of employment and power in these societies and to a large extent continue to do so today. While the status of women today varies dramatically in different countries and, in some cases, among groups within the same country, such as ethnic groups or economic classes, women continue to experience the…

Infants Who Witness Violence: Effects and Treatments

INFANTS WHO WITNESS VIOLENCE: EFFECTS AND 1

Age Span Differences

Effects on Infants

A Sleeper Effect

Stunt Babies' Intellectual Development

Cerebral Effects

Disturbance of attachment and its consequences

Assessment and Intervention

Infants who witness violence: Effects and Treatments

esearch clearly shows that the effects of domestic violence on children, result from children and infants that have been observing witnessing domestic violence in a home where one or both of their parents are abusing each other, plays a key part on the safety and developmental growth of infants and children that are observing this violence. However, in 2009 in the Philippines, it was projected that as many as 8 to 20 million children were exposed to domestic violence (JL, 2010) with about 4.5 million children wide-open to domestic violence in their homes every year. (Attala JM, 2012) Infant children who are current in the…

Music on Emotions and Behavior

Music and education

Psychological implications

The effect of music on word recall

Several studies have been dedicated to the study of the effect of music on the memory. Most of the studies have been dedicated to the analysis of the way the human mind processes information. The brain has been indicated to be made up of a very complex system of neurons that is actively involved with the transfer of information from one part to the other. A study of the neural networks .The study of the effects of music on the human memory is still ongoing (Kirkweg 2001). Several factors have been found to affect the memory of a person. The most common ones being music, attention, emotion, stress as well as aging.

The mechanism involved

The human memory has been pointed out to be a mental system that is involved with the reception,…

Terrorism and the American Psyche

The attacks of September 11, 2001 not only affected those who were killed and injured, but also millions of ordinary Americans. The impact of this act of terrorism, along with a constant stream of attacks and threats of attacks have substantially altered the American psyche. Immediately after the attacks, Americans across the nation began to suffer from symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. In addition to this, Americans have suffered through a number of psychological effects of terrorism including fear, anger, and vulnerability. All in all, the effect of terrorism on American society has been one of altering the way Americans feel about their safety and their place in the world. In a sense, Americans no longer viewed their world as predictable, orderly, and controllable.

ell known psychologist, illiam E. Schlenger, stated that the attacks of 9/11 "represent an unprecedented exposure to trauma" within the…

Media on Terrorism

Acts of anti-American terrorism are becoming increasingly common, and more and more are occurring on American soil, according to Columbia political scientist rigitte L. Nacos (Nacos, 1995). According to Nacos, the rise in terrorism is not a matter of flawed national security. It has more to do with the success that terrorists have enjoyed in exploiting the relationships among the media, public opinion and political decision-making (Nacos, 1994).

Nacos believes that the media is "the crucial link in the terrorist's 'calculus of violence,' particularly terrorist spectaculars -- large actions aimed at Americans, like the Iran hostage crisis, the bombing of PanAm Flight 103, and the hanging of hostage Lt. Colonel William Higgins in Lebanon (Nacos, 1994)." In these cases, she says, the terrorists "exploited the free American media. They got an extraordinary amount of attention -- up to two-thirds of the network evening news devoted to the…

PTSD on the U.S. Military

In order to fully understand the issues with PTSD and the military, one must consider the idea that military service can have a serious impact on soldiers, even when they do not see combat. In the past, the argument has been that PTSD was a combat-related illness, and that only soldiers who were actively engaged in combat in the recent past struggled with the issues related to PTSD. Now, many studies have shown that most soldiers live with the thought of never knowing when their turn to die is next, and that constant agitation and anxiety can cause these soldiers to experience PTSD (Delahanty, 2011; Ehlers, et al., 2010; Feldner, Monson, & Friedman, 2007; van Zuiden, et al., 2009). This is even more pronounced for soldiers who have been on multiple deployments and, by extension, have been in harm's way and under stress more often…

Homosexual Parents on Children

Conversations around the appropriateness of homosexual parents adopting, having or even raising children pose the argument of the effects on the children. However, research of the effects is rare, as well as limited in the direct topic. To follow is a review of key pieces of literature discussing the concepts of diverse family environments and the effects the environments.

Evidence supports the knowledge that children do not learn how to be homosexual by interacting and upbringing by homosexual parents. In fact, more research leads to the belief that children of homosexual families have a broader understanding of sexuality and awareness, and most information points to a heterosexual environment in the learning process (Gabb, 2004). Suggesting that learning environments need more diversity, yet there is the stigmatic thought that "social codes of decency" (Gabb, 2004) are "universal truths and normality's" (Gabb, 2004) of what would be deemed…