41). Groups like the ALA fund research on various forms of COPD every year, so it seems certain that some kind of additional treatments and preventions may be discovered in the future. Since emphysema is such a prevalent disease, continued research must be completed to help ease the suffering of millions of Americans, and save lives, too.
In conclusion, emphysema is a serious and deadly disease that can be prevented in most people by simply avoiding cigarettes. The disease can be treated, but once diagnosed, it cannot be cured. It affects millions of Americans, and studies show it will continue to affect Americans who smoke, even if they have quit smoking years before. While there have been many studies done on the disease, researchers still do not know how to recondition the lungs once they are affected. Emphysema is serious, and more studies need to be done to help determine…...

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References

Author not Available. (Nov. 2004). Emphysema. Retrieved from the American Lung Association Web site:   April 2005.http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=35043#whatis20 

Berardelli, P. (1997, October 27). Of mice and men. Insight on the News, 13, 41.

Honish, R.L. (1982). Chest and lung diseases. In Over 55: A handbook on health, Duncan, T.G. (Ed.) (pp. 81-100). Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press.

Lewis, C. (1999, March). Every breath you take. FDA Consumer, 33, 9.

Introduction BPD or bronchopulmonary dysplasia represents a chronic ailment of the lungs, largely occurring among premature babies requiring oxygen therapy and mechanical ventilation for treating severe respiratory distress. It may also develop among immature babies displaying symptoms of early lung-related illness or babies born at their term but requiring rigorous ventilator therapy to treat serious lung ailments. In the last four decades, prenatal steroid administration, surfactant therapy, better nutrition, novel ventilator strategies and other modern treatments have led to significant progress in the medical course and results of premature babies suffering from respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). But in spite of the above advancements, BPD prevalence, on the whole, has remained the same over the last ten years (Gien & Kinsella, 2011).
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia pathophysiology
Babies displaying the greatest likelihood of BPD diagnosis are born at a time when their lungs haven’t yet transitioned to the saccular stage from the canalicular stage. Considering the…...

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References

Abman, S. H., Collaco, J. M., Shepherd, E. G., Keszler, M., Cuevas-Guaman, M., Welty, S. E., ... & Kirpalani, H. (2017). Interdisciplinary care of children with severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia. The Journal of pediatrics, 181, 12-28.

Collins, J. J., Tibboel, D., de Kleer, I. M., Reiss, I. K., & Rottier, R. J. (2017). The future of bronchopulmonary dysplasia: emerging pathophysiological concepts and potential new avenues of treatment. Frontiers in medicine, 4, 61.

Gien, J., & Kinsella, J. P. (2011). Pathogenesis and Treatment of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 23(3), 305–313.

Patel, V. & Cherian S. (2016). Management of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia / Chronic lung disease. Retrieved 17 May 2018 from http://www.cardiffnicu.com/Portal/Respiratory/Chronic%20lung%20disease%20guideline.pdf

Tropea, K., & Christou, H. (2012). Current pharmacologic approaches for prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. International journal of pediatrics, 2012.

http://doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0b013e328346577f

Understanding Bronchiectasis Outline

Introduction

Brief overview of bronchiectasis
Importance of awareness and understanding of the condition


Understanding Bronchiectasis
Definition and explanation of bronchiectasis
The anatomy and function of the bronchi
How and why bronchiectasis affects the lungs
Detailed explanation of causes leading to bronchiectasis
Exploration of risk factors including genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and associated conditions
Common symptoms associated with bronchiectasis
Diagnostic processes and tests used to identify bronchiectasis
Current treatment options available for bronchiectasis
Long-term management strategies for living with bronchiectasis
Preventive measures to reduce the risk of developing bronchiectasis
Future research directions and potential advancements in treatment
Summary of key points discussed
The importance of early diagnosis and effective management
Encouragement for readers to seek medical advice if they experience symptoms
Causes and Risk Factors
Symptoms and Diagnosis
Treatment and Management
Prevention and Future Outlook
Conclusion


Introduction

Bronchiectasis is a chronic lung condition that has remained in the shadows of more commonly discussed respiratory diseases like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, its impact on patients' lives is no less significant,…...

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Resources

Pasteur, M.C., Bilton, D., & Hill, A.T. (2010). British Thoracic Society guideline for non-CF bronchiectasis. Thorax, 65(Suppl 1), i1-i58.

Flume, P.A., Mogayzel, P.J., Robinson, K.A., Goss, C.H., Rosenblatt, R.L., Kuhn, R.J., & Marshall, B.C. (2007). Cystic fibrosis pulmonary guidelines: chronic medications for maintenance of lung health. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 176(10), 957-969.

McShane, P.J., Naureckas, E.T., Tino, G., & Strek, M.E. (2013). Non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 188(6), 647-656.

Chalmers, J.D., Aliberti, S., & Polverino, E. (2015). The EMBARC European Bronchiectasis Registry: protocol for an international observational study. ERJ Open Research, 1(1), 00081-2015.

Some of the major objectives of the strategy include lessening regional alveolar distension, atelectasis, oxygen mediated injury, diaphragm injury, and inflammation. The other approaches that can be used to lessen the injury include using high frequency oscillatory ventilation, positioning, neuromascular blocking agents, fluid therapy, and immunomodulation.
Conclusion:

Ventilator Induced Lung Injury is one of the common illnesses that occur among patients with acute lung injury. This disease is mainly attributed to the use of mechanical ventilator to save these patients though there are other risk factors that contribute to the injury.

eferences:

Dreyfuss, D. & Saumon, G. (1998, January 1). Ventilator-induced Lung Injury -- Lessons from Experimental Studies. American Journal of espiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 157(1), 294-323. etrieved from http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/content/157/1/294.long

Feng et. al. (2011, July 19). Pediatric Acute espiratory Distress Syndrome Treatment and Management. etrieved September 26, 2012, from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/803573-treatment

Galvin, S. & Granton, J. (2011, March 3). educing Ventilator Lung Injury. etrieved September

26,…...

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References:

Dreyfuss, D. & Saumon, G. (1998, January 1). Ventilator-induced Lung Injury -- Lessons from Experimental Studies. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 157(1), 294-323. Retrieved from  http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/content/157/1/294.long 

Feng et. al. (2011, July 19). Pediatric Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Treatment and Management. Retrieved September 26, 2012, from  http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/803573-treatment 

Galvin, S. & Granton, J. (2011, March 3). Reducing Ventilator Lung Injury. Retrieved September

26, 2012, from  http://respiratory-care-sleep-medicine.advanceweb.com/Features/Articles/Reducing-Ventilator-Induced-Lung-Injury.aspx

he most common progressive chronic lung situations that would require the rehabilitation include interstitial lung disease, chest wall disease, bronchiectasis, and pre and post thoracic surgery. he fourth category of patients to offered pulmonary rehabilitation is those with recent exacerbation of COPD requiring hospitalization, without the anticipated recovery path, and whose functional baseline has changed significantly ("Service Specification," 2012).
he Problem:

Chronic lung diseases have developed to become one of the most common respiratory illnesses across the country. As the diseases have become one of the major reasons for hospitalizations of patients, they usually affect individuals at the age of 35 years and above despite of the fact that these individuals are usually not diagnosed until they are 50 years and above. he growth and rapid increase of chronic diseases is attributed to the tendency of many people with the disease not to get medical assistance. While the conditions continue to…...

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The most common progressive respiratory disease is the Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), which is a name that is also used to refer to a collection of lung diseases ("Introduction," 2012). The other common chronic lung diseases include emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chest wall disease, interstitial lung disease, chronic asthma, and obstructive airways disease. These chronic lung diseases usually involve a combination of three major factors i.e. airway diseases, lung circulation diseases, and lung tissue diseases. As the name suggests, the airway diseases affect the airways or tubes that transport oxygen and other gases to and from the lungs. In contrast, the lung tissues diseases affect the lung tissue structure through inflammation or scarring of the tissue. Lung circulation diseases affect the blood vessels in the lungs through scarring, clotting, or inflammation of these vessels. As a result, these diseases contribute to difficulties of the lungs to receive oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The severity of chronic lung diseases is basically dependent on the combination of these three conditions. However, most of the chronic lung diseases are attributed to the narrowing or blockage of the airways. For instance, emphysema, COPD, and chronic bronchitis are conditions that inhibit the ability of the tubes or airways to carry oxygen and other gases to and from the lungs. Generally, patients with chronic lung diseases such as COPD always have difficulties breathing because of airflow obstruction or narrowing of the airways.

As previously mentioned, these diseases account for a huge number of hospital emergency room visits and hospitalizations, although they are largely preventable. Despite being preventable, these diseases have become some of the major causes of death and key factors in the ever-increasing huge human and economic burden because of the tendency of patients to ignore their symptoms ('Emergency Department Support Fund Application," n.d). The major symptoms of these diseases include rising breathlessness, frequent chest infections, and constant cough with phlegm ("Introduction," 2012). The tendency to ignore these symptoms contributes to the many incidents of recidivism to acute care facilities.

The main cause of chronic lung diseases, especially chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is smoking. An individual enhances the risk of developing these diseases when he/she smokes more and for long periods of time. Smoking results in scarring that increases the risk of chronic lung diseases, through irritating or inflaming the lungs. The inflammation in turn results in permanent lung changes over many years. During this period, the walls of the tubes or airways thicken as more mucus is generated. In addition to making the lungs lose their normal elasticity, the damage or harm to the delicate walls of the air sacs in the lungs results in the development of emphysema. Moreover, the smaller airways or tubes become narrowed or scarred. The combination of these permanent changes to the lungs contributes to symptoms of cough, breathlessness, and phlegm linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary

Pulmonary Sarcoidosis
Sarcoidosis is a sometimes-lethal disease affecting primarily the lungs and thoracic lymphatic system, and its hallmark feature is noncaseating granulomas in multiple tissues and organs (Hoang and Nguyen, 2010, p. 36; American Thoracic Society, 1999, p. 736). Over 90% of all sufferers have pulmonary involvement, but granulomas are frequently found in other organs and tissues, including the skin, eyes, liver, spleen, parotid glands, central nervous system, muscles, bones, and genitourinary tract (Hoang and Nguyen, 2010, p. 36). When death does result, it is typically due to pulmonary fibrosis. What follows is a review of pulmonary sarcoidosis from a clinical perspective.

Causes and isk Factors

The cause of sarcoidosis is unknown, but research into the nature of the resulting granulomas suggests immune dysregulation in genetically susceptible individuals is the primary causative factor (American Thoracic Society, 1999, p. 738-740). The genetic contribution appears to be significant, as evidenced by an ethnic, gender, and…...

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References

American Thoracic Society. (1999). Statement on Sarcoidosis. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 160, 736-755.

American Lung Association. (2010). State of lung disease in diverse communities 2010. Lung.org. Retrieved 5 Mar. 2012 from  http://www.lung.org/assets/documents/publications/lung-disease-data/solddc_2010.pdf .

Baughman, Robert P., Lower, Elyse E., and du Bois, Roland M. (2003). Sarcoidosis. Lancet, 361, 1111-1118.

Drent, Marjolein, De Vries, Jolanda, Lenters, Merinke, Lamers, Rob J. s., Rothkranz-Kos, Snjezana, Wouters, Emiel F.M. et al. (2003). Sarcoidosis: Assessment of disease severity using HRCT. European Radiology, 13, 2462-2471.

Empyema Clinical Manifestation
Empyema: Lung Sounds and other Clinical Manifestations

Over the past decade, empyema has consistently been recognized as an acute, potentially life-threatening respiratory disease. A large number of studies have been conducted over the last years that address the unique symptomatology of empyema and the clinical implications of these symptoms.

The biggest diagnostic challenge of empyema is that patient often present with symptoms very similar and difficult to distinguish from an uncomplicated pneumonia. A patient typically shows symptoms such as fever and chills, excessive sweating, malaise, cough, dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain and unintentional weight loss (Sahn, 2007). These symptoms individually do not warrant a diagnosis of empyema. They do, however, require precautionary follow-up testing that should include a pleural fluid aspiration. The presence of pus -- an opaque, whitish-yellow viscous fluid consisting of serum coagulation proteins, cellular debris and fibrin deposition -- aspirated from the pleural space is a direct indication…...

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References:

1. Walker W, Wheeler R, Legg J. (2011). Update on the causes, investigation and management of empyema in childhood. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 96, 5, 482-488.

2. Sahn SA. (2007). Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 45, 11, 1480-1486.

3. Heffner JE, Klein JS, Hampson C. (2010). Diagnostic utility and clinical application of imaging for pleural space infections. Chest, 137, 2, 467-479.

4. Froudarakis ME. (2008). Diagnostic Work-Up of Pleural Effusions. Respiration, 75, 4-13.

Creatine treatment started at 6, 8, and 10 weeks of age, analogous to early, middle, and late stages of human HD, significantly extended survival at both the 6- and 8-week starting points. Significantly improved motor performance was present in both the 6- and 8-week treatment paradigms, while reduced body weight loss was only observed in creatine-supplemented R6/2 mice started at 6 weeks." (Dedeoglu, et al., 2003) Specifically it is stated that the "...Neuropathological sequelae of gross brain and neuronal atrophy and huntington aggregates were delayed in creatine-treated R6/2 mice started at 6 weeks. We show significantly reduced brain levels of both creatine and ATP in R6/2 mice, consistent with a bioenergetic defect. Oral creatine supplementation significantly increased brain concentrations of creatine and ATP to wild-type control levels, exerting a neuroprotective effect. These findings have important therapeutic implications, suggesting that creatine therapy initiated after diagnosis may provide significant clinical benefits…...

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Bibliography

NINDS Huntington's Disease Information Page (2009) National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Online available at  http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/huntington/huntington.htm 

Hamilton, J.M., et al. (2004) Rate and Correlates of Weight Change in Huntington's Disease. Journal of Neurology Neuroscience and Psychiatry 2004; 75:209-212. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. Online available at  http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/75/2/209 

Gaba, Ann M. et al. (2005) Energy Balance in Early-Stage Huntington Disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 81, No. 6. June 2005.

Djousse, L. (2002) Weight Loss in Early Stage of Huntington's Disease. Journal of Neurology 2002. Nov. 12:59(9): 1325-30.

, 1998). It is hard to know where the boundary stops between psychological and physical illness, since the two are, often intimately combined with one affecting the other.
QOL, as De Vries and Drent (2008) point out is often confounded with state of physical health but actually it reflects one's emotional and psychological welfare. Nonetheless, the two are intimately related in that each affects the other.

Conducting a through review on the subject with key words involving 'Sarcoidosis and health status', Sarcoidosis and quality of life" or Sarcoidosis and fatigue" De Vries and Drent (2008) ended up with 15 studies that they considered relevant to their subject.

Counter-intuitively, they discovered that the greatest challenge on QOL as effected by was the patient's fatigue caused by the disease. Breathlessness, reduced exercise, and impaired working and physical activities were the most frequent reported hindrances. The instrument used was the World Health Organization Quality of Life…...

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References

American Thoracic Society (1999) Statement on Sarcoidosis, 736-749

The report provides a thorough overview of Sarcoidosis discussing new developments and demonstrating how much in the field remains enigmatic.

Bona, J. et al. (1998) Neurosarcoidosis as a Cause of Refractory Psychosis: A Complicated Case ReportAm J. Psychiatry 155:8, 1100-1107

The report describes Sarcoidosis and gives a case history as example.

For example, in these procedures it is often difficult to open the patient's mouth wide enough for laryngoscopy and intubation, thus creating the possibility that cardiopulmonary changes may be present and the "probability o lesions in oesophagus, bowel, kindneys, skin and joints." This information would not be known if not for this study and its reported findings.
The study's conclusion is that the use of thoracic epidural anesthesia to sevoflurane based inhalation "may be a suitable technique for thoracic surgery in achalasia due to sclerodermic patients." The reason for this conclusion is that the study found that this procedure "can provide a smooth anesthesia course and a rapid recovery, with hemodynamic stability, and also having pain-free postoperatively." More so, the study found that providing anesthesia without neuromuscular blockade and non-intravenous opioids has "provided a shorter recovery time."

Clearly this specific case study has important and practical implications to the practice of…...

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Bibliography

Erol, Demet Dogan, M.D. (2006): "Thoracic Epidural Blockade in an Elderly with Achalasia Due to Scleroderma for Thoractomy, Esophageal Myotomy and Cystotomy-Capitonnage. The Internet Journal of Anesthesiology. Vol. 11, Number 1.

OGANELLA AND CYTOSKELETAL Organellar and Cytoskeletal DiseaseOne of the human cellular organelle disorders or diseases are known to the world is Cilia and Kartagener syndrome. It is a rare syndrome that occurs within the body with chronic sinusitis, situs inversus, and bronchiectasis (Mishra et al., 2012). The problem arises when the general movement of cilia is troublesome genetically due to its autosomal recessive genetic functioning. The patients have to suffer from chest infections, severe nose/throat/ear symptoms, and infertility.Kartageners syndrome, also known as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), shows an abnormal defect in the functioning of cilia. The symptoms include outer dynein arms, inner dynein arms, and sometimes even both when the problem occurs in 90% of the patients (Mishra et al., 2012). 38% of the patients have been investigated to carry mutations of dynein genes called DNAI and DNAH5. As mentioned earlier, the specific condition inculcates the buildups of secretions that…...

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ReferencesGupta, S., Handa, K. K., Kasliwal, R. R., & Bajpai, P. (2012). A case of Kartagener’s syndrome: Importance of early diagnosis and treatment. Indian Journal of Human Genetics, 18(2), 263–267.   M.W., Pittman, J.E., Carson, J.L., Ferkol, T.W., Dell, S.D., Davis, S.D., Knowles, M.R. & Zariwala, M.A. (2009). Clinical and genetic aspects of primary ciliary dyskinesia/ Kartagener syndrome. Genetics in Medicine, 11, 473-487.  https://doi.org/10.1097/GIM.0b013e3181a53562 Mishra, M., Kumar, N., Jaiswal, A., Verma, A. K., & Kant, S. (2012). Kartagener’s syndrome: A case series. Lung India: Official Organ of Indian Chest Society, 29(4), 366–369. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-2113.102831https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-6866.100787 Leigh,

Alterations of Hematology and Cardiovascular Systems
Sickle Cell Anemia

Ms. A is suffering from Sickle cell anemia. In this disease, the red blood cells appear in the shape of sickles or letter C. The normal red blood cells are disk-shaped. The disk-shape allows them to move smoothly in the blood vessels. Normal red blood cells have hemoglobin. The hemoglobin is responsible the red color. It helps in the transportation of oxygen. Sickle cells, on the other hand, have abnormally low hemoglobin, which results in the C-shape. This form is sticky and stiff and so cannot move easily through the blood vessels. Ms. A's condition was a case of Menorrhagia as well as dysmenorrhea. The sickle cells lump together and block the flow of blood through the blood vessels leading to the organs and the limbs. Such blocked blood vessels may lead to pain, infections and even organ damage (Health 24, 2014).

Sickle cell…...

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Bibliography

Health24. (2014, APRIL 30). The seven types of anaemia. Retrieved from Health24.com:  http://www.health24.com/Lifestyle/Your-Blood/Anaemia-20130216-2 

UoM. (n.d.). Sickle cell disease. Retrieved from University of maryland:  https://umm.edu/health/medical/reports/articles/sickle-cell-disease

Population of the City of Atlantis on March 30, 2003 = 183,000
of new active cases of TB occurring between January 1 and June 30, 2003 = 52

of active TB cases according to the city register on June 30, 2003 = 238

The incidence rate of active cases of TB for the 6-month period was: [ONE POINT]

per 100,000 population per 100,000 population per 100,000 population per 100,000 population

130 per 100,000 population

183,000 is 183% of 100,000, so the rate per 100,000 would be 52 divided by 1.84...or 28.

The prevalence of active TB as of June 30, 2003, was: [ONE POINT]

14 per 100,000 population

130 per 100,000 population

144 per 100,000 population

264 per 100,000 population

e. none of the above

B -- using the same math as above...except it's 238 / 1.84 -- 129.3

3. Which of the following is an advantage of active surveillance? [ONE POINT]

a. requires less project staff

b. is relatively inexpensive to employ

c. more accurate…...

ole of Autoimmunity in Three Endocrine Disorders
A number of endocrine illnesses are immune mediated and can now be reliably predicted. Autoimmune disorders can occur in a person and people related to them. Families with history of autoimmunity, and has had antibody screening done, becomes aware of those that carry such risk. Knowing the prevalence of such disorders and the diseases associated with them can help in early diagnosis and prevent them from becoming more serious. Autoimmunity affects several glands in the body. Studies reveal that alleles are very important in the determination of tissue-specific targeting (Aaron W. Michels & George S. Eisenbarth, 2010).

The Process of Autoimmunity

Autoimmunity is necessary for the body to maintain its health by countering effects of external virulent and organic attacks. It involves regulatory networks that provide the body with immunity against infection. It has not yet been determined why instances arise where autoimmunity processes sometimes…...

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References

Aaron W. Michels, & George S. Eisenbarth. (2010). Immunologic Endocrine Disorders. Journal of Allergy, Clinical Immunology, 225-237.

Aleksandra Krzewska, & Iwona Ben-Skowronek. (2016). Effect of Associated Autoimmune Diseases on Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Incidence and Metabolic Control in Children and Adolescents. Biomed Research International.

Heves Kirmizibekmez, Rahime Gul Yesiltepe Mutlu, Nafiye Demirkiran Urganci, & Ayse Oner. (2015). Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome Type 2: A Rare Condition in Childhood. Kirmizibekmez H, Yesiltepe Mutlu RG, Demirkiran Urganci N, Oner A. Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome Type 2: A Rare Condition in Childhood. Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology. 2015;7(1):80-82. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.1394., 80-82.

Kohei KAKU. (2010). Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes and its Treatment Policy. Japan Medical Association Journal, 41-46.

moking and Lung Disease
moking is a hazardous habit that has the ability to greatly affect the health of the smoker and those that are close to them. The purpose of this discussion is to investigate smoking and lung disease. The discussion will focus on possible community health nursing interventions/teaching strategies. We will also use Orem's nursing model to describe the community, its health issue/problem, and proposed interventions.

Community and Health issue

The community in question is Grady County which is located in Chickasha, Oklahoma. moking is a prevalent problem in this community and people are seemingly unaware of the health consequences related to smoking. The reason why this issue was chosen was due to my mother having evere Emphysema and the effects this disease has on her, also because of the impact that second hand smoking can have on non-smokers For example, I am Deathly Allergic to moking. My airway closes off…...

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Sources, and Consumption Values of Teenagers: Implications for Public Policy and Other Intervention Failures. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 36(1), 50+.

American Lung Asociation. 2005.   b=34706& ct=910873http://www.lungusa.org/site/apps/s/content.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E& ;

Cigarette Smoking and Cancer, 2004. National Cancer Institute. http://cis.nci.nih.gov/fact/10_14.htm

Nicotene Addiction. (National Institute on Drug Abuse. Research Reporthttp://www.drugabuse.gov/PDF/NicotineRR.pdf